High School and Education Essay

1a) Cultural expiration-Intellectual Develop custodyt development of thought and reasoning skills. Theorists would cope that many WC kins lack educational books, toys and activities that would help get to a kidskins capable development. Douglas- WC civilisechilds scored lower on test of ability, as their p bents atomic number 18 little(prenominal) apt(predicate) to assume their childrens intellectual development. Bernstein and Young- mothers choose toys that influence intellectual development. Criticism WC unclouded-hotthorn non be able to afford these toys etc. -Language children fail to develop necessary oral communication skills and grow up incapable of abstract thinking and ineffectual to affair language to explain, describe, enquire and comp be. Restricted & Elaborated code Bernstein. MC have an advantage as the elaborated code is used by teachers, text books and exams. alike MC scholars argon already fluent speakers ( neighborlyisation) so they feel at home in take aim day and argon much possible to succeed. Criticism Bernstein describes WC speech in decorous. -Attitudes and Values Parents steads and look ons are a key factor affecting educational come throughment.Douglas- WC parents institutionalize less value on education. Feinstein- the lack of inte alleviation is more important than financial trial or factors within domesticate. legion(predicate) WC sub stopping points have different goals, beliefs, locatings and determine from the rest of society. Hyman- WC subculture is a self- call ind barrier to educational success. Sugerman- Fatalism, Collectivism, Immediate Gratification, Present-time Orientation. WC children internalise the beliefs and values of their subculture through the he prowessyisation process meaning under- passment. -Compensatory Education Policy intentional to tackle the conundrum of CD by providing extra resources to trail and communities in deprived areas. E.g. Sure Start, Education do constituteion Z unitarys etc. Criticism stupefy ont square off the sincere cause of under-achievement (poverty and material deprivation).-Criticisms Keddie CD is a myth and blames victims. A child plentynister non be deprived of their own culture they are just culturally different. Troyna and Williams teachers have a speech power structure where MC speech is highest. Blackstone and Mortimore parents attend fewer parent evenings as they whitethorn work longer hours/less regular hours or put pip by informs MC atmosphere. in addition may not help their childrens fare as they lack the k like a shotledge. -Studies show that WC children are more likely to diverge school from the age of 16 and are less likely to go on to sixth form and university. in like manner working- kin children are more likely to start school unable to read, and are more likely to fall behind in reading, pen and number skills.1b) Material Deprivation-Referred to poverty and lack of material necessitie s (housing/income). -Stats 32% of WC students were considering moving forth of the family home to attend university. 90% of failing schools are in deprived areas. 33% of those receiving free school meals got 5 or more A*-C GCSE grades. 90% of failing schools are located in deprived areas. -Housing- overcrowded housing means less space to do work, play, relaxation etc, and greater risk of accidents. -Diet and health- lower intakes of energy, vitamins and minerals.Poor nutrition -> weaker immune frame -> lowering childrens energy levels -> get ill easier (poor attendance at school). WC children are more likely to have demeanoural or delirious problems. -Financial Support- WC children lack equipment and miss out on school trips. They in like manner stick do with hand-me-downs (results in being stigmatised/bullied). Children living in poverty take on jobs (baby sitting, cleaning, paper rounds) which has a negative impact on their school work. Also very few go on to universi ty. The government has attempt to tackle this problem, e.g. EMA, raising the school leaving age and providing free-school meals. -Criticisms Ignores internal factors and cultural deprivation.1c) Cultural Capital-Bourdieu suggested MC culture is as valuable in educational terms as economic detonating device. The forms of knowledge, values, ways of interacting and communicating ideas that MC children possess are developed further and rewarded by the education corpse (qualifications).WC have a lack of cultural dandy which leads to exam failure. They also get the message that education isnt meant for them thus they truant/leave school early/ fork over no effort. -Education, economic and cultural detonator can be converted into one another. E.g. MC children with cultural capital are better equipped to meet the removes of school and gain qualifications.Wealthier parents can convert their economic capital into educational capital by send their children to private schools, and paying extra tuition. -Gewirtz sees how greater parental woof of school has benefited one social kind more. Study 14 London schools with interviews from parents and teachers. She put up that differences in economic and cultural capital lead to class differences in how far parents can implement choice of secondary school. She identifies three main types of parents privileged-skilled choosers (MC parents who used their economic and cultural capital to gain educational capital for their children), disconnected-local choosers (WC parents whose choices were restricted by their lack of economic and cultural capital), and semi-skilled choosers (mainly WC who were ambitious for their children barely lacked cultural capital).Internal Factors (class difference)2a) Labelling-Attaching a meaning to just aboutone. teachers often attach labels careless(predicate) of their ability or attitude. -Howard Becker- Did a carry establish on interviews with 60 Chicago high school teachers they judge sch olarly persons to what they think is the ideal pupil. WC children were furthest (regarded as badly behaved). -Cicourel and Kitsuese- Did a study of educational counsellors in an American high school they claimed to judge students according to their ability, however, they judged students on their social class/race- MC have more potential than WC children.-Rist- Did a study of an American kindergarten the teacher used information astir(predicate) childrens primer and appearance to place them into separate assemblages. At the front was the tigers (MC, given multiform work), cardinals and then the clowns (given easy work like drawing). -Sharp and Green- Did a study active a child-centred primary school children picked their own activities, teachers felt when a child is ready to l get ahead they will seek help. However, teachers believed that children who werent ready should suck in compensatory play. Their findings support the interactionist view that children of different class circumstance are labelled differently. They argue that the negative labelling of the WC is also the result of in fittingities in wider society.2b) Self-Fulfilling Prophecy-A prediction that comes true because it has been made. Step 1 Teacher labels pupil and get outs predictions. Step 2 Teacher treats the pupil accordingly. Step 3 disciple internalises the teachers expectation which becomes part of their self-concept/image, and becomes the kind of pupil the teacher believed (prediction is fulfilled). -Streaming involves separating children into different ability groups (streams). Each group is taught differently. Studies show that the self-fulfilling prognostication is likely to occur once streamed. WC children are usually put in a lower stream as they arent ideal pupils. It is difficult to pop off up into a high stream thus are locked into their teachers expectations -> self-fulfilling prophecy as the children live up to their teachers expectations by under-achieving.2c) Pup il Subcultures-A group of pupils who component part similar values and behaviour patterns. They emerge as a repartee to the way pupils have been labelled (reaction to streaming). -Lacey Differentiation- process of teachers categorising pupils according to their ability/attitude/behaviour. Polarisation- process in which pupils respond to streaming by moving towards one of the dickens opposite extremes. Pro-school subculture- fit(p) in higher streams, remain connected to the values of school and gain status through academic success. Anti-school subculture- lay in lower streams, have substandard status. -Hargreaves There are two distinctive subcultures Conformists and Non-conformists delinquents (a delinquent subculture that helped guarantee their educational failure).-Woods argues that rather than seeing pupil subcultures as either conformist or deviant, it is more realistic to see a variety of possible adaptations/responses to the schooling process. Pro-school Ingratiation (pu pils who try to earn the favour of teachers), Opportunism (those who vary between teacher and peer approval), deference (pupils who conform for instrumental reasons), Ritualism (pupils who go through the motions), Colonisation (pupils who avoid trouble, only when will deviate if there is less punishment).Anti-school Ritualism, Retreatism (not opposed to school values, provided not concerned about achieving success), Colonisation, Intransigence (deviate and arent bothered about the consequences), Rebellion (pupils have little regard to school values and excrete school teachings). - puffiness found that when the school abolished banding, the basis for pupils to polarise into subcultures was largely take and the influence of the anti-school subculture declined. However, differentiation stick aroundd. As a result, class inequalities can continue due to teachers labelling. -Limitations Deterministic assumes that once pupils are labelled, they have no choice moreover to fulfil the prophecy and will inevitably fail. Ignores wider structures of power blames teachers for labelling pupils but fails to explain why.2d) Marketisation and Selection Policies-Marketisation is a policy that introduces market forces of supply and demand into areas run by the state. Marketisation has brought in Funding formula (giving a school the same amount of funds for each pupil), Exam League Tables (ranking schools based on their exam performance), Competition among schools to collect pupils. -A-C Economy Schools need to achieve a good league table position to attract pupils and funding. However, this widens the class gap in achievement. The A-C economy is a system in which schools confine their time, money, effort and resources to those who will get 5 A*-C GCSEs to get a high rank. -Educational Triage sorting pupils those who will pass anyway, those with potential, futureless cases. Those classed as hopeless cases are ignored (self-fulfilling prophecy and failure).-Competition an d Selection Schools with a good league table position will be placed to attract other able/MC pupils. Thus improves the schools results and makes it more popular which increases funding. Popular schools can afford to screen out less able and more difficult pupils, unpopular schools are induce to take the, get worse results, and get less funding. Cream plane selecting higher ability pupils, who gain the best results and cost less to teach. Silt-shifting off-loading pupils with schooling difficulties, who are expensive to teach and get poor results.-Attraction creating school contracts to attract parents, buying things like pipe organs to get a conventional image of the school (attracting the MC), grant maintained and city technology colleges provide vocational education in partnership with employers (another route to elite education). Ball et al suggests that schools spend more on marketing themselves to parents, and spend less in special needs in other areas. -Marketisation and selection created a polarised education system, with roaring, intimately-resourced schools at one extreme, and failing un-resourced schools at the other woolly-headed hierarchy.External Factors ( cultural differences)3a) Cultural Deprivation-Intellectual and linguistic skills Major cause of under-achievement. umteen children from low-income saturnine families lack intellectual stimulation and enriching figures. This leaves them poorly equipped for school because they have not been able to develop reasoning and problem-solving skills. Also the language used by portentous children in inadequate for educational success. Also those who dont speak English at home may be held back educationally. However, Mirza and Gillborn note that Indian pupils do very well despite not having English as their home language. -Attitudes and Values want of motivation is a major cause of the failure of black children. many another(prenominal) children are socialised in a mainstream culture of ambi tion, competitiveness and willingness to make scarifies to achieve long-term goals.Black children are socialised into a fatalist subculture. -Family structure Failure to socialise children adequately is the result of dysfunctional family structure. Many black families are headed by a lone-mother their children are deprived of adequate care because she has to struggle financially due to the absence seizure of the male breadwinner. The absence of the father also leads to the absence of the positive role model. Charles Murray would lead to the under-achievement of some minorities. Pryce Asian pupils are higher achievers because their culture is more resistant to racial discrimination and gives them a greater sense of self-worth. Black culture is less sticky and less resistant to racism. Thus they have low self-esteem and under-achieve.-Asian families driver and Ballard they bring educational benefits as the parents have more positive attitudes towards education, higher aspirations a nd are therefore more supportive. Lupton respectful behaviour towards adults was expected from children, and had a knock-on effect in schools. Khan parents are stress ridden, bound by tradition, and controlling. -Criticisms Driver ignores positive effects of ethnicity on achievement. Lawrence black pupils under-achieve because of racism not self-esteem. Keddie victim-blaming theory. They under-achieve because schools are ethnocentric and favour white culture. Compensatory Education it is an attempt to impose on the dominant white culture on children who have a culture of their own. Critics propose 2 alternatives Multicultural education recognises values of minority cultures and includes them in the curriculum. Anti- racist education challenges the prejudice and discrimination that exists in schools and wider society.3b) Material Deprivation-Stats 1) Pakistani and Bangladeshi women are more likely to be in low-paid jobs. 2) 15% of ethnic minority households live in overcrowded cond itions. 3) Unemployment is three measure higher for African and Bangladeshi/Pakistani people. -Gillborn and Mirza argue that social class factors dont ignore the influence of ethnicity. When we compare pupils of the same social class but different ethnic origins, we still find differences in achievement.3c) racism in Wider Society-David Mason disparity is a proceed and persistent feature of the experience of Britains citizens of ethnic minority origin. -Rex shows how racial discrimination leads to social exclusion and how this worsens the poverty go about by ethnic minorities. E.g. housing minorities are more likely to be forced into substandard accommodation than whites. -Noon two people with the same qualifications and experience applied for a job. However, the white person got the job, rather than the Indian. Thus shows that ethnic minorities are more likely to face unemployment and low pay.Internal Factors (ethnic differences)4a) Labelling and Teacher Racism-Interactionists They see that teachers picture an image of the ideal pupil. simply they see that black and Asian far from the ideal pupil. This leads them to label black pupils as disruptive and aggressive, and Asian pupils as passive and a problem they can ignore. -Gillborn and Youdell due to racialised expectations, teachers were quicker to discipline black pupils than others for the same behaviour. -Black pupils Teachers misinterpreted their behaviour as threatening/challenge to authority. Pupils then responded negatively and further fight resulted. This may be why many black pupils are excluded, and their stereotypes may cause them to be in lower sets (under-achievement). -Asian pupils Teachers assumed that they would have a poor grasp of English and left them out of class discussions or used simplistic childish language. They also felt isolated when teachers mispronounced their names or teachers expressed disapproval of their customs.4b) Pupil Responses and Subcultures- instinct(predicate) Study of a group of black lady friends in year 11. Found that the girls conformed as far as school work was concerned. They worked consistently, but gave the appearance of not doing so (positive attitude to academic success, but preferred to rely on their own efforts than teachers). Fuller sees that pupils may still succeed even when they refuse to conform, and negatively labelling doesnt always lead to failure (no self-fulfilling prophecy). -Mirza Study of ambitious girls who faced teacher racism. The study failed as their coping strategies restricted their opportunities and thus under-achieved. She found that racist teachers discouraged black pupils from being ambitious through the kind of life story advice that was given to them.The colour blind teachers who believe all pupils are equal but allow racism got unchallenged. Liberal chauvinists teachers who believe black pupils are culturally deprived and had low expectations of them. Overt racists teachers who believe blacks are i nferior and discriminate against them. -Sewell Four ways in which boys respond to racist stereotyping Rebels (rejected both the goals and rules of school, conforming to the stereotype of the black macho lad. Saw white boys as effeminate), Conformists (keen to succeed, accepted the schools goals and avoided stereotypes from teachers or their peers), Retreatists (disconnected from both school and black subcultures), Innovators (pro-education but anti-school).4c) The Ethnocentric Curriculum-Ethnocentric attitude/policy that gives more value to one culture and ignores the rest. -The curriculum is very ethnocentric (favouring white culture). E.g. in teaching languages non-European languages are ignored (also other cultures in literature, art and music). However, in history, black history is taught, but it is focused on slavery. This may produce lower self-esteem to black pupils as this image of black people as inferior undermines them and may lead to failure.4d) Institutional Racism-Inst itutional racism discrimination that is built into the way institutions operate. -Schools tend to set schemes for the quick-witted and talented, and vocational schemes for the less academic e.g. black and Asians.External Factors ( sexual activity differences)5a) Girls-Feminism McRobbie shows that magazines in the 1970s emphasised the importance of getting married. Whereas, nowadays, they contain images of assertive, independent women. Also scoopful operas now highlight the importance of self-esteem and personal choice for new(a) women. -Family Sine the 1970s there have been major changes in the family. For standard an increase in divorcement rates, increase in cohabitation and a hang in the number of first marriages, increase in the number of lone-parent families (female-headed) and smaller families. These changes affect girls attitudes to education. Such as the increase in female lone-parent families may mean more women need to take on the breadwinner role. This creates a ne w adult role model for girls- the financially independent.To achieve this, women need well-paid jobs, and thus good qualifications. Also the increase in divorce rates suggests that girls can make their own living. -Employment 1970 Equal Pay Act (illegal to pay women less for the same job as men), Sex Discrimination Act. Womens employment has risen due to the service sector and plastic part-time work. 1975- The pay gap between men and women has increased. Women are now breaking through the glass ceiling (keeps them out of high-level master copy managerial jobs). -Ambitions Sharpe- study involved conducting interviews with girls in the 1970s and 1990s. In the 1970s the girls felt that education with unfeminine and if they were interested, it would make them unattractive. In the 1990s, the girls ambitions had changed, and thought vocations are more important as they can support themselves.5b) Boys-Feminisation of education Schools do not nurture masculine traits much(prenominal) as competitiveness and leadership. Also coursework has created differences in educational achievement. -Shortage of male primary school teachers Strong positive male role models both at home and at school cause may causeunder-achievement. 16% of men are primary school teachers. 42% said they made them work harder. Yet, Myhill and Jones found they felt male teachers treated boys harshly. -Laddish subculture WC boys are more likely to be labelled as sissies and subjected to homophobic verbal abuse if they appeared to be swots. Boys were more concerned to be labelled by peers than girls, as it is a threat to their masculinity. Thus, WC boys rejected schoolwork to avoid being called gay. Epstein- real boys dont work if they do, they get bullied.Internal Factors ( sexual practice differences)6a) Girls and Achievement-Equal opportunities policies Policies such as GIST and WISE encourage girls to pursue a career in non-traditional areas. The National Curriculum has removed one source of gend er inequality by making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects. Also schooling has become meritocentric. -Positive role models The increase in female teachers shows that women can achieve positions of importance and giving them non-traditional goals to aim for. -GCSE and coursework Girls are more undefeated in coursework as they are more conscientious and better organised. Sociologists argue that these characteristics and skills are the result of early gender socialisation. E.g. girls are likely to be encouraged to be neat, tidy and patient. This puts girls in a better place as they achieve greater success.Elwood- not the only cause of the gender gap. -Teacher attention Teachers paid more attention to boys as they are attracted to reprimands. This may explain why teachers have more positive attitudes to girls, whom they see as cooperative, than to boys, whom are seen as disruptive. This may lead to self-fulfilling prophecy in which successful interactions with teachers promo te girls self-esteem and raise the achievement levels. -Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum prejudiced images have been removed from learning materials.This may help raise girls success levels- more positive images of what women can do. -Selection and league tables Girls are more likely to be recruited from good schools as they are more attractive to schools. This may create a self-fulfilling prophecy. -Feminists Liberal- See that further progress will be made by the continuing developments of equal opportunities, and see education is a meritocracy. Radical- System still remains patriarchal. E.g. sexual anguish continues, education still limits their subject choice and career options, females are less likely to become head-teachers.