Сauses of the Protestant Reformation

The term â€Å"Protestant Reformation† is used to describe what was originally an effort to â€Å"reform† Western or Catholic Christianity (the term Catholic means â€Å"universal†) but ended up creating a separate tradition. Several stages can be identified as part of the Reformation, beginning with Martin Luther (1483-1546) in Germany then shifting to John Calvin (1509-1564) and Huldrrych Zwingli (1481-1531) in Switzerland (206). Reforming ideas later spread to England, leading to the Church of England (Anglican) breaking from Rome (1533) and the growth of many Protestant denominations, such as Methodist, Baptist and Congregational.Luther’s nailing of his 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittenburg in 1517 is widely considered as launching the Reformation but earlier people, ideas and movements contributed toward Luther’s actions. Political and religious factors both lie behind the Reformation. First, religious then political causes o f the Reformation are discussed below. Among several â€Å"forerunners† of the reformation was John Wycliffe (d. 1384), the English Bible translator and his disciple Jan Huss (1372-1415) of Bohemia. Earlier movements and attempts to reform the Church also lie behind the Reformation.Many wanted ordinary Christians to read the Bible for themselves and blurred the distinction between lay and ordained. One of the major emphases of the reformation was the â€Å"priesthood of all believers. † Direct access to the bible in vernacular languages, not in Latin which few lay people spoke or read, was regarded by Catholic priests as dangerous, by-passing their priestly role as mediators. Luther, an Augustinian monk and professor at Wittenburg, became convinced that the Church substituted itself for â€Å"faith†, acting as if â€Å"salvation† was a commodity that could be bought and sold, which the Pope did in the form of indulgences.Preoccupied with â€Å"justificat ion,† Luther determined that faith is God’s free gift; it cannot be earned by good works or bought from the church. He also criticized the wealth and political power of the Church. He renounced celibacy, arguing that the Christian life is a vocation that should be lived out in the world. Protestants rejected papal authority; gave priority to the bible, recognized two (as compared with seven) sacraments, baptism and communion (some jettisoned the concept of â€Å"sacrament†); gave communion in both kinds (as compared with only bread) and taught the priesthood of all believers.Behind these Protestant emphases was discontentment with a Church that was dominated by priests, practiced many traditions that could not be traced back to scripture and that was preoccupied with wealth and power at the expense of spirituality. Such practices as buying church offices (simony), clerical marriage or the keeping of mistresses as well as the sale of indulgences, all compromised t he Church’s moral and spiritual authority. Faith for Protestants usually involves a personal experience of renewal. You are not born a Christian but become Membership of a Church does not mean that you are necessarily a true believer.Invention of the printing press, too, made placing the Bible at the center possible because more and more people could now read the bible. Translation also facilitated this process. The above also had political implications. Much money went from countries such as the German states to Italy to pay for building churches or to maintain the lavish lifestyle of popes and bishops in Rome. Earlier, during what was called the investiture controversy of the 11th and 12th centuries, the Pope had vied with kings and princes over who had the right to appoint church officers, with the Pope claiming that only he had the right to do so.In fact, there was also historical tension between the Pope’s claim to be the ultimate temporal as well as spiritual aut hority and kings who saw themselves as ruling directly under divine authority with no need for papal approval. Following Luther’s denunciation of indulgences and of other beliefs and practices, several German princes supported his new movement, asserting that they had the right to choose which version of Christianity would be the â€Å"church† within their state.Effectively, this was what Henry VIII did when he declared that the Church of England was independent from Rome, that it was the established church of his realm. Henry became head of the Church of England. In theory, the Popes saw the Church as â€Å"above† the state, since they legitimized kingly succession. In Protestantism, the Church tends to be regarded as â€Å"under† the state, or as a partner in running the state. Luther and other reformers were in part successful because they had the support of political leaders.From the perspective of kings and other temporal rulers, weakening the power of the Pope and retaining money within their own states was a significant factor. For Luther and his fellow reformers, the Reformation had more to do with matters of the heart. Luther experienced a personal transformation while preparing his lectures on the Book of Romans and it was this experience that prompted his ideas about â€Å"faith alone†, â€Å"grace alone† and â€Å"scripture alone†. Yet without the support of temporal rulers he would probably have been convicted of heresy and executed.Rather than single out one or several causes of the Reformation as the most important, arguably, what lies at the root of the Reformation was a new spirit of humanism that was sweeping Europe. Luther was no â€Å"humanist† but he did want to give Christianity back to the people and in a sense to individuals, who would study the Bible, undergo personal, individual religious experiences and who would not have to answer to an external sources of authority. No one wou ld stand between a person and their God, although kings tried to do so as stamped out alternatives to their choice of a state church. . The Renaissance has been called the `birth of modernity. `Why? The â€Å"Renaissance† describes the period from about 1300 to about 1600, although historians disagree about the exact parameters. Historians actually identify several â€Å"renaissances† such as the English renaissance and the Scottish renaissance although the term is often restricted to the Italian renaissance. â€Å"Modernity† can be a misleading concept, because what was thought â€Å"modern† in the 1920’s seems old-fashioned in the opening years of the 21st century. The word means â€Å"re-birth†.Following the Black Death, which emasculated the population of Europe killing about a quarter of the population, some people decided that if life was short they ought to become as much as possible masters and mistresses of their destiny. Life was t oo fragile to be subject to a great many limitations and controls. The typical Renaissance Man did not confine himself to a single area of interest but studied a wide range of disciplines. Leonardo Da Vinci (1452-1519) for example was a scientist, an inventor, an artist, a anatomist, musician, visionary, musician and engineer.Arguably, Da Vinci did not want to miss out on any aspect of learning that was accessible to him as a human individual. He wanted everything that life could afford him. One contributing factor behind the emergence of the Renaissance was the rediscovery of classical learning aided by the influx of Greek refugees from Constantinople after 1453, when it fell to the Ottomans. Scholars from the East brought with them copies of Aristotle, Plato and other Greek masters. Other forgotten texts traveled to Europe via the Muslim world through Spain. The City-state of Florence was instrumental in developing Renaissance ideas.Some suggest that after the Black Death merchant s and workers gained importance. Since they were fewer in number, they could demand higher wages and more privileges. In smaller states, their importance was magnified. More wealth led to more interest in spending their leisure time pursuing learning and other interesting activities. Previously, scholarship had been dominated and policed by the Church to ensure that ideas though dangerous and contrary to Christian teaching did not develop. Lay people now turned to serious academic endeavors and were less concerned with conformity to Christian ideas.What many saw in the classical texts was confidence in humanity itself, in human ability to shape the world, to control human destiny. The way in which the human form was depicted in Greek sculpture testified to the nobility of the human form. Renaissance men such as Petrach (1304-1374) actually thought that ancient times were superior and wanted to reconstruct the past. Ancient knowledge of the functioning of the human body suggested the uniqueness of â€Å"man† among other creatures. All of this shifted the human to the center. Renaissance thought is not characteristically atheist but it is generally classed as â€Å"humanist†.Much scholarship focused on the humanities, that is, poetry, grammar, history, moral philosophy and rhetoric and there was a deep concern with how men and women could live virtuous lives. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (1463-1494) famously said that â€Å"man is the measure of all things† which can be taken as the motto of the age. The Renaissance was also given a boost because wealthy people decided that patronizing art and learning was worthwhile. In what sense did the Renaissance prefigure or give birth to modernity? Modernity here is understood as the age of mature humanism. God is no longer thought to supervise and pre-ordain human affairs.The Church is no longer the guardian of learning. Knowledge is that which can be empirically proven, regardless of whether the Ch urch approves or not. While many â€Å"great men† of the Renaissance still believed in God and in eternal punishment or reward, others began to distance themselves from religion. Some tended to think that God created the world and humanity but then stepped aside, leaving people to determine their own destiny. Modern thinkers do not look to religious doctrines to determine â€Å"right† from â€Å"wrong† but see notions of morality as socially agreed constructs which are therefore fluid and subject to change.A thinker such as John Stuart Mill (1806-73) argued that a world free of religion would be more moral because people would act not in order to earn a reward but simply because an act was moral. Spinoza (1632-77) produced a system of ethics that was derived from rational thought, not from scripture. The idea that humans, by ingenuity can cure diseases, shape the world to suit their needs, redeem past mistakes by new feats of engineering and skill, puts â€Å"h umanity† at the center and all but makes God redundant.God becomes either wishful thinking or a dangerous idea, one that prevents people from taking responsibility. Historians, though, are divided on whether the Renaissance was a bridge from the Middle Ages to modernity or whether nostalgia for the past was so rampant that it could not prepare for an unknown the future. Or, even if Renaissance people did glorify the past this was in order to improve the world in which they lived and the world in which their children and their children would later live. Renaissance people were confident that human skill could make the world a better, more attractive place.The impetus to know the world led to the great explorers, which in turn inspired the more recent quest to reach the stars. Arguably, Renaissance people looked back to take what was best from the past so that humanity could move forward. Thus, modernity has its roots in Renaissance conviction that man is the measure of all thin gs. 2. The Early Middle Ages are often referred to as the `Dark Ages. ` Why? Was there any learning during this period? Dividing history into periods and naming them is problematic because not everyone agrees on how time should be divided.Characterizing an era by its main ideas or ethos, such as â€Å"Renaissance†, â€Å"Enlightenment† may be better than using such terms as â€Å"Middle Ages† or â€Å"Modern† because what can now be called â€Å"Middle† will later be nearer the start of written history. What is now â€Å"modern† will seem antiquated. The term â€Å"Middle Ages† may remain appropriate when applied to the period between the classical and the Renaissance, that is, from the 5th to the 13th centuries, although the Renaissance is sometimes included in the late Middle Ages, ending in the 15th century.Defining historical periods by describing their ethos depends on establishing a consensus about what characterized them. It wa s the Renaissance thinker, Petrarch (d. 1374) who first referred to the early Middle Ages (roughly end of fifth to end of ninth century) as the Dark Ages. Petrarch believed that the classical world was superior to the age in which he lived, itself characterized as a period of â€Å"re-birth†, that is, of reviving ancient ideas. Consequently, for Petrach, the period between the end of the classical age and the beginning of the Renaissance was â€Å"dark†.The term ‘Middle Ages† was also coined by a Renaissance period scholar, Flavio Biondo (d. 1463) who distinguished the classical, the Middle and the modern periods. For him, modernity began around about his own time, or perhaps from the Fall of Constantinople (1453). During the Dark Ages, Learning was rare, confined almost exclusively to the Church and many clergy were badly educated. Europe was divided, since the attempt to unite the former provinces of the Roman Empire as the Holy Roman Empire failed.The Ca tholic Church was the only pan-European organization and this may have hindered the development of science because little other than theology was taught or studied. There was hardly any serious historiography and literature, all in Latin, was almost exclusively hagiography or related to theology. Poetry, creative and imaginative writing, fiction, was conspicuous by their absence. Art did exist but was controlled by the Church and comparatively few great buildings or cultural artifacts were produced, although some were. Examples of great art are the illuminated mss of the Bible, such as the Book of Kells.Certainly, there was a great deal of superstition during the Dark Ages and anything that the Church authorities could not understand was condemned. This included some ancient knowledge of medicine, dubbed â€Å"witchcraft† and spiritual practices that challenges the Church’s authority, such as Celtic Christianity in Ireland, Scotland and Wales where women played a great er role and nature was reverenced. In fact, however, there were centers of learning where non-religious subjects were explored: some monasteries were isolated but maintained libraries where away from the prying age of the protectors of orthodoxy forbidden ideas were explored.The term â€Å"dark ages† highlights the contrast between the age of discovery when development took place in many areas, in science, medicine and technology from the Renaissance on and the earlier lack of progress or achievement. Yet others argue that some important aspects of modern life have their roots in the Dark Ages. For example, although the experiment of unifying Europe under the Holy Roman Empire failed, the Catholic Church did represent a unifying ideal. People were conscious of belonging to an entity that was larger than their political unit. People saw themselves as belonging to the same race, with the same rights.The idea of the whole globe as a common habitat may stem from this early unders tanding of human unity. The idea that everyone, even rulers were subject to the same law and the use of juries of peers can be traced back to the Dark Ages. The jury system remains fundamental to how justice operates in the modern world. In Art, realism was a feature during the Dark Ages, laying foundations for later developments such as the Romanesque and Gothic styles. Universities emerged just after the end of the Dark Ages and cannot have appeared from nowhere, that is, the idea of the University must have some roots in the so-called Dark Ages.The oldest Universities in Europe such as Bologna, Paris and Oxford taught the arts, law, medicine as well as theology. Enough people versed in these subjects but who were not themselves graduates of universities must have existed to teach relevant courses. Presumably, they were the products of monastic centers of learning that had pushed the boundaries of knowledge beyond theological topics. Thus, the term â€Å"Dark Ages† may refl ect the perspective of Renaissance scholars more accurately than it does those of modern scholars.On the one hand, the Renaissance is depicted as the beginning of modernity or as its precursor, suggesting that modernity built on antecedents and did not materialize spontaneously, appearing ex nihilo. Similarly, some ideas from the Dark Ages such as early contact with Muslim learning in Spain, may have laid foundations on which the Renaissance built. Pre-Renaissance Europeans were not completely ignorant about classical thinkers, for example. There may be better ways of dividing and characterizing history, although both terms â€Å"Dark Ages† and â€Å"Middle Ages† have had a long shelf life.

Plant and Animal Cell

First of all, plant and animal cells are eukaryotic cells. They have complex structures but they both have major differences, as well some similarities. Plant cell are usually larger than animal cell. Both types of cells have many organelles. The plant cell has a few more organelles than the animal cell but for the most part they  have the same organelles. Animal and plant cells both have a nucleus, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, and  endoplasmic reticulum. Only plant cells have a cell wall, vacuole, chloroplast, and plastids.Both cells are controlled by a nucleus and otherwise they wouldn’t be able to function without it. As well, the ribosomes go through a process called synthesis of proteins, these proteins are necessary for life in the cells. The Golgi apparatus packs the proteins to stay in the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is categorized into two parts, Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it; it packs the proteins made by the ribosomes.The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes but it detoxifies poisonous material in the cell. Furthermore, animal cells are rounded and irregular in shape, while plant cells have fixed rectangular shapes. Plant cell have cell wall which makes a rectangular structure, these structure are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and a variety of other materials, but animal cells don’t have this cell wall causing it to have dynamic shapes (spherical shape).Plant cells have chloroplasts for the utilization of sunlight and this is what contributes for a plant to look green. Plant cell do photosynthesis while animal cells can’t. The chloroplast is only present in plant cell because they make their own food. Also plant cells contains a large central vacuole that is enclosed by a membrane that makes up 90% of the cell volume, while as compared to the animal cell, it has one or more vacuole but smaller that the plant cell. Also plant cell have plastids and animal cell don’t have.Plastids are small organs in the cytoplasm that stores colored pigment and food. Plant cells use linking pores in their cell wall to connect to each other and pass information while anima cells depend on an analogous system of gap-junctions that allows communication between cells. Animal cells have centrioles, cilia and lysosomes but plant cells have no need for centrioles because their spindle fibers are connected to the cell wall. Below are two pictures, one of an animal cell and the other from a plant cell.ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL Reference: 30 Sep. 2012 http://wiki. answers. com/Q/How_do_plant_cells_differ_from_animal_cells 30 Sep. 2012 http://wiki. answers. com/Q/How_do_plant_cells_differ_from_animal_cells 30 Sep. 2012 http://scienceray. com/biology/animal-and-plant-cell-similarities-and-differences/ 30 Sep. 2012 http://www. preservearticles. com/201101032391/main-differences-between-plant-and-animal-cell. htm l 30 Sep. 2012 http://www. diffen. com/difference/Animal_Cell_vs_Plant_Cell

Should Girls Ask Guys Out

Yeah its ok why wouldnt it. Alot of girls ask out guys the only thing thats big thing for guys is guys suppose to propose first to a girl for marrige but other then that its whoever. It is absolutely ok! I know girls who have asked their current boyfriends out and it was no big deal. To be honest, some guys would actually prefer the girl to ask (especially shy guys). Traditionally guys do ask girls out, however in recent times gender roles have changed dramatically. If this guy says no to you and thinks its weird for you to ask him out then he must not have much respect for women anyways.Why date a guy like that? So just go for it! What do you have to lose? Yes but I'd make sure he likes you first. Actually some guys prefer for girls tO make the first move!! OF COURSE!! Why should it be any different for a girl to ask a guy out than a guy? Just because of american society it is â€Å"proper† for the guy to ask the girl out. That is stupid. If you like him why not? He may be th e one that you let go because of your ego of i am a girl i can't do this. I think this is one of the stupidest things in the world. If you like someone you go after them.You don't let them slip through your fingers. And as a guy feeling threatened that is stupid. Sometimes guy's are just to shy you know? I mean come on why do the guy's really have to do ALL the work? don't let him slip by you There is nothing wrong with a girl asking a guy out. Guys are always the ones putting themselves on the line and asking the girl. U can do it to. The worst that could happen is that he says no. sorry im not a girl but i believe i can help you. A majority of the time a girl is NOT going to ask you out.I used to be a guy that went around and waited for girls to ask me out because i was too scared of being shot down. So you pretty much gotta go for it. Not to scare you but not every single girl is gonna say yes. you will be turned down, however you will also be with more girls if you take the chan ce too. It is very worth the trouble. As for how to know if a girl likes you, its hard to say. Girls are good at hiding their feelings. You can tell by very subtle signs. If you notice them stareing into your eyes alot and see their eyes slightly relaxed this may be a sign. If when you are alone and you otice her getting closer and closer to you this is a good sign. Yeap.. girls ask guys out. Sometimes the guys are too shy themselves and we must take matters into our own hands!†¦ Look at it this way.. if you don't ask.. you already have your answer.. NO†¦. but if you DO ask.. at least you have a shot at getting a YES†¦ Not agree: Don't ask him out, you'll seem a little on the pathetic side. No offense. How do you know he likes you? Did you hear it from someone or him? If you did hear it from someone, you can joke around with How to Make a Man Fall in Love with YouIt’s easy to attract a guy and make him like you. The hard part is knowing how to make a man fall i n love with you. You don’t have to change yourself or pretend to be dumb just to make a man you like feel comfortable around you. If you really want to make a man fall in love with you, you need to understand men and their ways, and use it to your advantage. How to make a man fall in love Use these ten tips and you’ll see how easy it can be to connect with a man and make him desire you. And what’s the best part? Well, you really don’t need to change a thing about yourself! 1 Dress attractively Men are visual, and women know this better than anything else. When you’re out with the man you like, dress your best. If you see him grinning widely or taking discreet glances at your attire, you know you’ve hit the nail. But dressing attractively doesn’t just stop working its magic there. If he sees other men staring at you or admiring you, it’ll only make him desire you more. Men are extremely competitive when it comes to wooing women. Win the attention of other men in the room, and the man you like will do anything to get more attention from you.And of course, he’ll realize how lucky he is to be with you. [Read:  What guys always notice on a date] #2 Be pleasant and smile often Men can’t ever resist a cute smile. And if you can be pleasant and warm when you’re with him, he’ll love you for it. If you want to know how to make a man fall in love with you, tuck your hair behind your ear as you answer an awkward question, blush a bit when you’re being complimentary, and laugh at his jokes even if you’ve heard it before. If a guy is attracted to you, he’d obviously want to impress you with his funny, heroic tales.By reassuring him that you’re having a nice flirty time, you’d make him feel better about himself. And a man always love a woman who can make him feel like a better man! [Read:  How to talk to a guy and make him like you] #3 Don’t be ru de Men are completely put off by rude or arrogant women. If you can be rude to your date or even a waiter, he wouldn’t be able to help but wonder if it’s only the tip of the rude iceberg. Men definitely love a woman who can take a stand, but if it’s in the form of arrogance, he’d stay a mile away from falling in love. 4 Connect with him intellectually Flirty conversations are sweet and cute, and the man you like will love the fact that he’s able to make you blush and go pink. But all flirting and no seriousness can get boring after a while. On your dates together, try and connect with him intellectually now and then. Speak to him about his career goals, his ambitions and aspirations, and let him see that he can actually have a meaningful life-altering conversation with you. [Read:  Questions to ask on a date] #5 Work your eye contactIt’s been seen that romantic eye contact can actually make two people fall in love with each other in no tim e. The next time you’re having a conversation with him, stare deeply into his eyes as he talks to you. You can smile or flirt, but every time your eyes meet, let the eye contact linger even if both of you aren’t exchanging words. It makes the guy feel warm and fuzzy, and would definitely stir his heart. #6 Lingering soft touches If there’s ever a way of knowing how to make a man fall in love with you and be a flirty tease at the same time, this is it.Men can’t resist a lingering woman’s touch. The next time you’re with him, be it clasping palms, hugging each other goodbye, or just crossing the street, let your touch linger softly for a moment longer than necessary. Your touch would be incredibly exciting for the man you like, and you’ll spark a romantic chemistry in no time. [Read:  How to flirt with a guy] Want to take this up a notch? Wear soft or satiny fabric when you go out on a date with the guy you like. He would have a hard time keeping his hands off you! #7 Don’t be easily availableThis is tricky, but it’s definitely a great way to make a man fall in love with you. When you’re in love with someone, you obviously want to be with that person and spend more time with them. But when you can’t be with the person you like, you end up missing the person a lot more. Once you know the guy likes you a lot too, try to skip an occasional date now and then. While it’s important to spend a lot of time together until the guy falls in love with you, it’s equally important to give some space now and then to make sure he understands how special you are, and how much he really needs you. 8 Show off your talents If you want to know how to make a man fall in love with you, learn to surprise him with your talent. He may like you for the person you are, but to completely make him fall for you, you have to let him know that you’re a bundle of happy surprises, waiting to be exp lored. [Read:  What to wear on a first date] Show off your talent and awe him with the things you do, be it at a karaoke bar or while dancing or even while karting or playing the piano. Give him a chance to see your talent and admire you for the awesome person you are. 9 Don’t always agree with him Compatibility is of great essence in a happy relationship. But you don’t always have to accept what the guy says or do what he wants to do. Sometimes, a minor disagreement can take him off guard, but it’ll make him respect your opinions a lot more. Remember, a man likes to flirt with a fun girl and have a serious conversation with an intellectual girl. Give him the best of both worlds, and seriously, how can he not fall in love with you?! #10 Don’t let him know you’ve fallen for him Men love the chase of a good romance.They take time to fall in love, but when they do, men fall hard in love. To understand how to make a man fall in love with you, you nee d to know the stages of love for men. [Read:  How men fall in love] Let the guy you like know that you like him a lot, but never let him know that you’ve fallen head over heels for him. Always make him wonder about how serious you are, and let him be the first one to make the move into a serious relationship. The longer the chase, the more he would want you. But at the same time, push him away too often, and he’ll give up on the chase.Play hard to get, and yet, warm up to him often. [Read:  How to ask a guy out the classy way] You really don’t have to change a thing about who you are to figure out how to make a man fall in love with you. All you need is patience, a pinch of panache, and the perfect balance of affection and playing hard to get. [Read:  How to make him want you] These ten tips on how to make a man fall in love with you can definitely help you work your magic and make the guy you like fall for you, just as long as you read the signs and make the right move.

The Italian-American Interment During World War II Research Paper

The Italian-American Interment During World War II - Research Paper Example The Italian-American Interment During World War II Roosevelt who at first admired the ways of the Italians via his affinity with the soon to be dictator Benito Mussolini, and then decided that the very person he admired was now a threat because of Mussolini's solid partnership with Adolf Hitler under the â€Å"Pact of Steel.† It was this paranoia on the part of Roosevelt that led to acts of Congress in the years of 1935-1939 that allowed for the illegal internment of Italians and eventually, the Germans and Japanese. Examples of this legislative work include the Alien Registration Act of 1940 and the Dangerous Cargo Act. All of the actions which the American government took against the enemy aliens on their land led to the creation of Nazi-like internment camps where Italians were held indefinitely without any charges being filed and their movement limited within the area of their incarceration. Thus, they were not allowed to hold jobs or own any businesses in their community. These inhumanities were but the tip of the iceberg when it came to the atrocities of war against the Italians residing in America without any legal status, though. If one were of Italian descent and living in the United States at that time without the benefit of citizenship, he and his family would most likely end up in an internment camp, regardless of the fact that the Italian Americans were one of the largest immigrant groups in the country at the time. The Italian immigrants were just like any other immigrant family in the United States. They struggled to retain their heritage while doing their best to become a part of the new culture that they chose to involve themselves with. It was these types of people who became the targets as alien threats in America. Mainly because of their adjustment issues, the old time Italians who could not adjust to the American way of life found themselves agreeing with Mussolini in terms of Fascist ideology, which they came to view in terms of a renewed spirit of their homeland that they needed to honor. 2 These sentiments also caused a great divide between the immigrant Italians and their first generation bor n Italian-American offspring who now identified more with the land of their birth in terms of heritage rather than the homeland of their parents. The arrests of the Italians living in America began on December 7, 1941. People arrested were part of the so-called Custodial List of the FBI that Pres. Roosevelt had the agency compile in the event that the United States needed to get involved in the ongoing World War. The list was meant to protect the country from being infiltrated by enemy forces and was set into action through the power of Title 50 of the U.S. Code, based on the 1798 Alien and Sedition Act which allowed for the arrest of â€Å"alien threats† during times of emergency. 3 Such was the perceived threat from the Italian immigrants during this time that the government began a rigorous campaign to quash the Italian heritage of first generation Italian Americans by declaring Italian an enemy language. The slogan for their campaign was â€Å"Don't Speak the Enemy's Lan guage! Speak American!† These posters lined the Italian-American communities during the war time era and saw a rapid decline in the use of Italian in the country since business owners decided not to speak the language in their place of

Responding online dissciocuion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Responding online dissciocuion - Essay Example The instructions on how to prepare Miso Soup were ineffective. The author should have provided an image illustrating how to wrap the tofu block in two layers and how to lay it on as required. The author of the post is wrong in generalizing that all adults can get by without images. The author should understand that people have different levels of understanding. Assuming that the intended message will be conveyed adequately without visual aids is an unwarranted assumption. It would require considerable effort to teach an individual with significant knowledge of the language how to tie a bow-tie without the direction of visual images (Laskowski 1). The terminologies to use when explaining how to perform a body building exercise will be difficult to choose. The use of a video guide simplifies the task. In conclusion, the writer of the post succeeds to show the relevance of visual aids in instructions. The careless inclusion of images is pointless, but skillful use of the same is of significant importance (Laskowski

A Petition to The President Of The United States Research Paper

A Petition to The President Of The United States - Research Paper Example This is not limited to the adversaries, but the future of Americans owing to their lack of adequate information (Gabor 52). Hence, the scientists besides their recognition of the president’s power, regarding its usage, they are using their expertise stand to dissuade him from applying it in attacking the Japanese. Since, they are acquainted with the impacts to their adversary where in retaliation, Japanese will hit back to the detriment of the common people who are unaware. Consequently, yield to utter destruction of both the property and human life (Gabor 51). This is ethos approach where its argument emanates from expertise the experts possess besides then foreseeing adverse effects that would befall Americans (Brown, Mullen & Mullen, 2009). Szilard, Leo and Cosigners efforts meant to dissuade atomic power application entailed emotional approach (pathos). This is evident when by their stating, â€Å"We feel, however, that such an attack on Japan could not be justified in the present circumstances† (Szilard & Cosigners, 1945). This aroused the president’s concern regarding to what the state had done by attacking, and destroying Japanese’s cities and planning to continue if it fails to comply with instituted conditions. Hence, somehow incline withdraw the state’s stand concerning the Japanese verdict of utter destruction. This is because of the experts’ displeasure regarding the whole idea of annihilation, which according it will result to their detriment once the adversary decides to adopt the similar method. Additionally, the emotional approach (pathos) coupled with tone evident in the work, unveiled the adverse effects if America maintained its verdict, which moved it to termination a ction of the atomic use. This is via prompting the president to reflect on the previous decisions that the state had taken by enacting a law that forbid it from utilizing atomic bombs. The arguers in this essay are trying to have the president’s attention regarding the devastation that would yield from the inception of the state’s verdict of utter annihilation of Japanese (Szilard, 1960). Since, the America would then bear the responsibility of marshalling in the era of devastation globally where it is inclusive. Besides, it has the power to either make the world be at peace or disrupt it by using atomic power against its already enacted law. Besides minor aspects meant to dissuade the president from using the atomic power, the arguers of this literature comprehensively utilize the skill of appealing. Primarily, this is via acknowledging that the decision regarding either to use or not lies with the president. The arguers contented that, the president possessed utter p ower as the Commander-In-Chief meant to sanction the application of atomic power on Japanese (Szilard & Cosigners, 1945). Additionally, the tone is that of a junior addressing a senior person from an advisory perspective, where the authority lies with high-ranking individual (Bernstein 40). This perspective owing to its non-authoritative nature and urging have made the literature attain its intention

Book Publishing Industry Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Book Publishing Industry - Assignment Example Their role is especially threatened with the availability of self-publishing options for the authors, an aspect that puts them out of the picture, with an added value of cheaper services for the authors (Bradley & Bartlett, 2012). Nevertheless, those publishers who will be willing to embrace the online trend and establish online services for the publishing of works, they are likely to survive. Such a trend is already evident with various publishers embracing online platforms through which they provide online versions of their publications to meet the online demand. The agents’ position and role are also threatened with the changes towards increased online services as the author have a choice of being in direct contact with the online platforms (Bradley & Bartlett, 2012). For them, they are likely to be intermediate, this time advocating the traditional publishing as it is only through this type of publishing that they role holds significance. An increase in the online demand f or reading material has a definitive impact on the print media. This means that with the increase in information technology, the printers are bound to be disintermediated from the book publishing industry as their role will be consumed by online publishing and accessibility of the books. On the other hand, the distributors are likely to be cyber-mediated through the development of online distribution platforms in the form of e-Libraries that would enhance the accessibility of eBooks (Bradley & Bartlett, 2012).

Community Crime Watch in New Jersey Research Paper

Community Crime Watch in New Jersey - Research Paper Example According to this research, there are opportunities to improve security in the entire community if the recommendations are implemented to the letter. My vision is for a community where people can go about their businesses without fear of being gagged. To achieve this vision, a number of initiatives to address the current community problems have been proposed in my final report. These initiatives are based on wide-ranging consultations with community members, law enforcement agencies and the relevant government officials. I believe New Jersey would be one of the most progressive and secure places in the country. Once again, am thankful for the opportunity to be part of the solution to the problem regarded highly in the community. Warm regards, Xxxxx(Sign) xxxxxxxxx (Name) Table of Contents Executive Summary 3 Introduction 4 Neighborhood Watch Programs 4 How Neighborhood Watch Works 5 Systematic Review of Neighborhood Watch in Practice 7 Concluding Recommendations 8 References 11 Execu tive Summary I was appointed and mandate to review the current security situation in New Jersey, identify the gaps for improvements, identify best practices, consult with the community members, and develop recommendations to arrest the current security menace in this area. This report has engendered the opinions of a diverse group of people including community action groups and the security agencies in New Jersey. It contains the Neighborhood Watch Programs samples, how they work, a review of successful stories, and the recommendations intended to inform better decisions leading to a secure New Jersey by changing the prevailing attitudes toward security agencies as well as adopting proven best practices in Neighborhood Crime Watch programs. Introduction The criminal justice system has saved the community for centuries by using a very simple logic to ensure a secure neighborhood: taking the "criminals" away and putting them behind bars away from the rest of the population. It evident within the current functioning of the justice system that many loopholes exist that has led to the worsening of security apparatus in place. As it was done then, the aforementioned method can still work. However, the dynamics within which the old system worked is totally different from the current situational analysis, and a new approach to institute tighter security is urgently required, particularly in New Jersey. Neighborhood Watch Programs The term â€Å"Neighborhood Watch† surfaced out of a movement promoting the involvement of the people towards crime prevention in the United States (Titus, 1984). It is often â€Å"three pronged† package that not only entails Neighborhood Watch but also property-marking and survey of homes concerning how secure they are (Titus, 1984). Variations encompass block watch, home watch, apartment watch, community watch and the general alertness of the citizenry. Specifically, some of these programs include elements of recruitments for special, regular foot patrols that involve the selected citizens as well as and educational programs, auxiliary police patrol units, and services for victims affected in one way or the other. Neighborhood Watch operates mainly by residents being on the look out for suspicious incidents and reporting them to the police once spotted. It is one of the potential deterrence measures that prevent possible offenders from committing criminal activities (Bennett 1990). One of the first Neighborhood Watch programs was the Seattle Community Crime Prevention

Social Networking and Information Systems Research Paper

Social Networking and Information Systems - Research Paper Example As the research declares the use of social networking sites have increased substantially for the last decades; thus, it serves a number of purposes, but the three main roles stand out as common across all sites. One of the functions or purposes of social networking is to maintain and strengthen existing social ties or creating new social connections. The major purpose of using social networking sites is to communicate and strengthen relationships with friends, families or relatives across the globe. Johnson argues that social networking sites have morphed into mainstream techniques for teens, adults and companies to exchange information about themselves through sharing pictures, videos, sharing interests and private messages. As the essay stresses social networking sites have not only enabled friends, families and relatives to connect in time and space but also enabled business entities to communicate easily about their products and services they offer to customers in the market. Companies post their products on social networking sites and others have their profiles, thus they upload their content, which are in turn shared across the social network connections. This is vital because it has boosted the business growth of many companies because they are able to advertise their products and services effectively; thereby, reaching many customers across the globe efficiently. Many social network sites permit users to mark content as public or confidential, while others permit them to tag content. Others social tools such as YouTube allow users to upload unlimited amount of content and users are always allowed to upload interesting contents, which are generally publicly accessible from the profile page of the u sers. Social sites such as LinkedIn are among of the significant sites for recommending and organizing the content uploaded by users. This site has become commonly used for job seekers and

Political Environment Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Political Environment Case - Essay Example The following concerns are hereby addressed: Response to the Letter One would first acknowledge support and congratulatory greetings to the new governor to indicate that one is not a detractor, nor a political enemy. It would be emphasized that any current policies and procedures would be appropriately justified to ensure that these are aligned with his administration’s thrust on addressing security and enhanced inmate programs. One would simply note that the currently implemented policies conform with the 1984 Justice Assistance Act which apparently removed previous restrictions and were inmates are enjoined to do productive work (Peak, 2007). Likewise, there were apparent recommendations enforced by the American Jail Association that encourages training programs, which are consistent with the educational and vocational programs currently implemented in the state prisons. ... One could present current statistics of improvements and therefore justify and rationalize that tighter and tougher policies and programs are not effective means to improve the current situation and condition of state prisons. As emphasized in the Prison Litigation Reform Act of 1995, state prisons are encouraged â€Å"to provide for appropriate remedies for prison condition lawsuits, to discourage frivolous and abusive prison lawsuits, and for other purposes† (Peak, 2007, p. 255). As such, imposing tighter and tougher inmate policies would expose the state prisons to potential lawsuits that would be detrimental to the image of the state and of the new governor, who openly suggested these measures. Thus, aside from instituting tougher inmate programs, the current education and vocational programs which would capitalize on making the inmates productive would be more beneficial in the long run. Internal and External Support Therefore, rather than outrightly dismantling current p olicies and programs that have been effective and deemed successful, one would seek support from both internal and external stakeholders. From internal sources, one would solicit support from prison staff and personnel through a formal letter or correspondence and enjoining them to openly validate the progress and effectiveness of these current programs to the newly elected governor. They could send formal letters and copy furnish these correspondences to the local publications to make the new governor aware the all current programs and policies are transparent and effective. Likewise, external support could be solicited from the local community members who benefit from reduced recidivism of prisoners and for teaching them vocational and

Marketing in Hospitality Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Marketing in Hospitality - Assignment Example They determine the programs for the customers in terms of time management. There is also the determination of the kinds of partnership formed within the industry. The companies in the industry utilize customer experience in the promotion of their services and products (Reid & Bojanic, 2006). This is because there is an emphasis on food and service quality. The customers depend on branding strategies of the hospitality firms for quality assurance. The firms in the hospitality industry spend many resources on advertising. The aim and objective is to increase the market share through the communication of the products and services offered. The firms grow due to the different media used in the promotion of sales in the hospitality industry. Such media include the internet, print media, and billboards. However, these methods of marketing depend on the ability of the companies to finance the sales promotion through their marketing budget (Horchover, 2002). The limitations of the sales promotion include the cost involved. Television commercials, for instance, involves high costs as the charges are according to the words used. The costs also rely on the economies of scale in the case of the ownership of many hotel properties. The sales promotion places an emphasis on branding due to the creation of a brand identity (Wearne & Baker, 2002). This ensures that consumers easily identify certain products with certain firms in the industry. Through this, the customers are able to evaluate different companies through the comparison of information about their products and services. The role of a market research is the provision of relevant information to the management of the companies in the hospitality industry for decision-making. For instance, a hotel may consider undertaking a market research to determine whether it requires and additional facility for the target market. The process of market research involves market identification, data

Toys and Games Essay Example for Free

Toys and Games Essay The Toys and Games industry is one of the most adaptable and creative enterprise businesses that outlined a wide scope of products for younger children as well as slightly older children. An increasing market of children toys and games have grown over the last several years to producing intriguing products that satisfies parents both on prices and technology. The toy and gaming industry has grown to produced extraordinary entertainment products as well as brand identity to solidify the company’s brand equity (Kelly, 2000:08). For instance the Mattel and Hasbro company brands contributes to the enormous consumer interests to toys and gaming system in the United States, China, and U. K. that created fierce competition with corresponding international company brands. The marketing strategies implemented by the firms operating in different geographic locations present an interesting perspective for defining the product specifics (Armstrong and Kotler, 2007:98). Some of the boundaries identified in the toy and game industry that resulted in the market being affected by falling birth rate. This in turn created a lower accountability in children population is declining in the past decade from 1996-2001 (Key Note, 2007:44). Therefore, the boundary creates the need for enterprises to redesign products for the older children market and provide appropriate marketing aspects according (Emeraldinsight. com, 2008). The marketing strategies used by the firms the major company brands are centered on the core technical advancement to solidify the target segmentation (Shermerhorn, 2008:38). The marketing strategies are planned and executed from its central platform in the international market due to the vast opportunities to reaching majority of the children population. The company’s brand cohesive approach provides the challenges exposed by each sector market that redefines the boundary previously indicated for exposure in the United States, China, and the U. K. target market segments identified (Asa. org, 2008:2). The toy and games industry sectors are categories in nine units that are as follows (Key Note, 200711): ? Infant/pre-school toys and games products for under 5year olds ? Activity toys ? Outdoors/sport toys and games ? Games/puzzles ? Dolls ? Action toys ? Vehicles ? Plush toys ? Other Products The toy and game industry category sectors are garnering the marketing approach to be designated by target demographic and locations to render the most brand equity to a profitability standing (Chitty, Barker, and Shrimp, 2005:22). The business enterprise has to renders a longer consumer commitment to a particular brand in order sustaining operations when the target demographic changes, case in point the last past decade declined in child births (Cameron, 2004). Moreover, the pricing strategies offer another element to assist in the differentials between the large company brands that creates a fundamental aspects to outlined the concepts for competitive prices in order to become the leader in the toy and game industry. The impact of government policies and laws on the Toys and Games Industry The identified government policies impacting the Toys and Games industry relates to several concerns that safety to weights and measure regulations. These two areas out of the many specified regulations depending on the location around the world where toys and games are sold, the safety area and weight measurements are dominately the primary concern. The safety legislation enforces the Toy Safety Directive 88/378/EEC that stricts the toy company to adhere to materials not destructive to the environment or longtime negative exsposure to children. Furthermore, the safety legislature covers the means for ensuring the toy products and games are aligned communicating the correct assessement towards age, choking hazards pieces, EN71-2:2006 Flammability, and other additional information to provide the parent the right assessment. The weights and measure regulations 1994 No# 1851 relates to the requirement for an indication of actual weighing of the toy and game. Case in point, the younger children demographic are at different sizes as well as the container/furniture to hold or stand up the product (Key Note, 2007:55). Therefore, this particular regulation provides the parent needed information to better assess what is acceptable for the children and/or houselhold. The weight and measure regulations allows for the company’s brands to focus on the appropriate components necessary to address two folds of marketing and RD concerns; pricing and targeted demographic preferences for longtime interests in the toy or game. These enforced government policies are geared towards bringing the law within the toy and game industry to facilitate the growing company brand in the international market as well as domestically. In doing so, the end user that is mostly younger children are able to enjoy the toy and game product to its full potential without the immediate concern of a possible harmful outcome. Analysis on the Economic Forces which Affect Demand for the Toys and Games Industry The economic environment is constantly changing that produces a challenging concept for toy and game companys to being creative in selling and distributing their products. The U. K. gross domestic product continues to show the consistent level of growth from 2004 to currently. In doing so, the GDP has provides a very positive backdrop for the corporate spending in RD for product development. The area of inflation does arises, especially the last couple of years particularly in U. K. , in which the rate have lagged behind for the increase of household disposable income (Carol. co. uk. ,2008:2). As economists have outlined, the prices that rises in an economy as a whole hoave been lower than income rises creates opportunities for toys and games company enterprises to adapt to the market conditions (Baye, 2009:102) The GDP in the U. K. averages to a 5% increases between 2007-2010 that encourages toys and games enterprises for further investment in traditional demographic markets. The senior management team within the toy and game industry companies provided the needed funding to further explore more creative ways to tap into the available expendable/spendable income of households. Respectively, the international focus of marketing to these targeted households are more effective in highlighting new products and features that can translate to â€Å"crazes† that boost volume sales for specific products. The growth rate continues to improve as more and more toy and game companies trained their marketing team to identify trends and adapt quickly to the changing preferences in the demographic (Pelsmacker, 2006:122). Case in point, the latest report on younger children are more inclined to prefer toys and games that are older in content that is understanding due to the rise in pre-school education. The younger children population tend to be more attracted to toys and games that are at least1 grade higher that produces an emphasis on creating products that are challenging to hold children’s interest. The economic environment additionaly creates a structure for companys to provide upgraded options in order counteract with limited product shelf life within the particular age groups. This is critical for major brands to adjust accordingly due to current trends of younger children preferences that are different than forty years ago. The cooperation of major company’s brand with retailers and research on trends offers a stronghold to RD to marketing effectively in a challenging economic environment. The Impact of Demographic Change, Society’s beliefs, Values and Attitudes The identified impact of demographic changes are in the specifications preferences from the younger children population. In recent years, the younger children population prefers more challenging activities from toys and games that requires for better RD to market effectively in the industry. In addition, the impact of the primary demographic creates an opporutunity for major companys to expand the focus of product development for ages 7-9 and 10-18 that focuses on educational development as well as entertainment. These demographic changes has pros and cons depending on the specificity of the toy and game company to adapt accordingly in order to stay relevant and leader in the industry (Bryman, 2007:45). The society’s beliefs, values, and attitudes on certain toys and games provide for social responsible company to adhere to that will not limit the marketability of the product. That is why most toy and game companies concentrate most of their investments in the international markets to expose the product line. The different cultures provides for a more specified marketing strategy that acknowledge the children society belief and values that will encourage a positive attitude towards the company brand. Case in point, the Mattel Corporation number one doll Barbie is marketed internationally and in each culture there are different theme Barbie, for instance the UK model will be different for the China model or even the U. S. A. model. This approach allows for a more competitive toy and game company to incorporate needed attributes in products that has a lasting impressions on younger and older children. The flexibility of the younger children preferences allows for the creation of upgraded tailored toys and games that older children are more attracted to purchase accordingly. Therefore, the brand of Sony and Playstation developed different demographic age groups to market that will balance out the disparity of time periods of low birth rate to a higher older children population. The demand for a different gaming experience by the older demographics sets the bar for firms both in the U. K. and the United States that creates a platform for influencing the marketing and design strategy (Burnes, 2004:102). The toy and games companies are utilizing the feedback from consumers and integrating a newer technology approach that infuses the society beliefs of acceptable products (Wild, Wild, and Han, 2006:94). The challenge is the constant ability to target market the appropriate resources to secure the designated children population (Fleming and Koppelman, 2006:25). The approach taken by each of the toy and game companies is to release products and game titles that catered to the targeted demographic preferences with care to parents and children values of appropriate features, i. e. the Brats Dolls probably will not be acceptable in China compared to the U. K. or the U. S. A. Therefore, the advancements during certain times for maximum impact in designing the product and accessories are critical to demonstrate a willingness to staying as a leader in the industry (Williams, 2008). The toy and game industry provides the straight forward concept to effective RD that produces an interesting business perspective to effectively knowing the market in different geographic locations to meet is strategic goals in demographic assessment. Assess the Impact of Technological Development in Relation to Toy and Game Industry. The dramatic impact of technological development in relation to the toy and game industry is the major features for the Sony PlayStation contrasting approach from the other products. As mention prior, the major opportunity for toy and game companies to market the brand towards different demographic age groups when the fluctuations in birth rate creates an audience interested in complicated toys and games (Cooper, Grey, Raymond, Walker, and 2005:28). These fluctuations in time-tables of releasing titles and online initiatives in China compared to the USA. The strategy for the time-tables is to apply pressure in the gaming markets on the other brands to follow suit after Sony sets the trend. The outcome projected for online capabilities increased revenue and returned investment due to the Sony PlayStation robust multimedia capabilities (USA Today, 2005:1). Conversely, the fundamental marketing strategy for Sony PlayStation is to allow U. K. to focus on the accessibility mindset for the expansion into international markets by the availability of titles to increase interest in the product. In doing so, the Sony PlayStation continues to stay competitive compared to Xbox and Nintendo Wii in both international markets. The Xbox predominately brand positioning with the manufacture trade-name Microsoft offers a competitive edge in the U. K. and the United States to keep the brand competitive to Sony PlayStation and Nintendo Wii. (See Figure A). Brand Positioning Brand Name Selection Brand Sponsorship Brand Development Attributes Benefits Beliefs and Values Selection Protection Manufacturers brand Private brand Licensing Co-branding Line extensions Brand extensions Multi-brands New-brands More importantly, the Sony PlayStation PS3 consoles have sold in the U. K. markets creates a profound interests to producing sales trends upwards (PlayStation. com, 2008: 2). The identified recent market strategy to improve the consoles model of PSP and PS2 that features a Blu-ray influenced the overall sales returns for the company. The Blu-ray provided the Sony PlayStation to effectively utilize the younger demographic age range from 12 to 18 years old. This approach for the Sony PlayStation differs from some of the other products by focusing and maintaining the aspect of a visual experience as the primary focus. In doing so, the targeted market segment offers Sony PlayStation to build on its already establishing consumer base to strengthen its brand identity (Sony, 2008:1). Furthermore, the Sony PlayStation marketing strategies adapt its features to the U. K. market on technique for the gaming experience compared to other international geographic markets that provides accessibility to upgrade features. The Sony PlayStation focuses on the titles for the video game console produced to solidify their lead in specific game titles. The PlayStation 3 competes with Microsofts Xbox 360 and Nintendos Wii as part of the generation of video game systems that distinguishes the PlayStation by its unified online gaming service, the PlayStation Network. The theoretical concept that Sony Company Entertainment incorporates is based on the understanding to the international markets that the firm concentrates on adaptability that secures a holding on the demographic both offline and online. The firm geographic locations, specifically in markets that catered to the product demographics interets presents more a direct interest to the game titles and technical online accessibility. Moreover, the Sony PlayStation contrasts with previous game developer’s perception on how Sonys marketing strategy for the online play to infuse advertising funding appropriately (Porter, 2004:89). Nonetheless, the Xbox generation video game console expanded the landscape to present Microsofts second foray in succeeding their projects in the international launch (Bowen, 2000). The promotional strategy for the Xbox 360 focuses on opening an alternate reality game title selections primarily in the USA and the Microsoft Corporation primary focus is to split resources for products exposure in U. K. for the marketing strategy. The focus on the U. K. is mainly due to the reported sales that have slowed due to the onset of the Nintendo Wii product launch that counteracts Microsoft Corporation approach (Xbox. com, 2008). Therefore, the Microsoft Corporation strategy is to penetrate the domestic and global markets with advance visual impact technology by presenting the product on an online community’s websites. The Xbox brand identity has grown in the internatinal markets over the years along with association to the British and American public; therefore, the brand identity provides an advantage in securing the brand equity compared to Sony PlayStation and Nintendo Wii. However, the Xbox marketing strategy for the product concentrates on the adaptability and brand loyalty in the United States the on going approach is to strenghten itself in U. K. and international markets. The measure implemented by toys and games companies such as Microsoft Corporation Xbox, Nintendo, and other corresponding companies provides the necessity of the concept for consumers to utilize the products in a different way rather than an ordinary way (Nintendo. com, 2008:3). The toys and game technology strategy is to provide more attractive software adaptability with creative tools to play the video game to solidify the consumer base. The product offers the technical capabilities on the online marketing to solidify the target market population for infusing the product’s brand equity. The 3 most Opportunities and 3 most Threats Identified The three most opportunity for the toy and game industry is the companies sources of information on demographics, distribution to international markets from economic scale, and the market is susceptible to â€Å"crazes† that boost volume sales for a specific item. These benefits of using demographic segmentation for targeting a children population audience is the increase of the share of the customer in the market, high customer equity, and brand equity that provides continued growth for business operations. The building of profitable relationships with them is the foundation of marketing management (Mantel, Mereidith, Shafer, and Sutton, 2008:11). The formula for the marketing management agenda is the philosophy for a design plan that empowers the brand idenitiy through effective customer-driven marketing strategy (Thill and Bovee, 2007:88). The opportunity creates a vast trend towards a specific product item that at times transcends the available spendable household income that truly boost sales. Therefore, the ability to change efforts to finding, attracting, and growing the target demographic from younger children to slightly older children proves beneficial by superior customer value (Kotter, 1996:1) The identified three threats are children getting older creating a shorter product shelf life, many products are global but ignoring local markets, and toys and games company has to compete with for consumer expenditures during high buying season i. e. Christmas. Therefore, the pursuit to successfully utilize the RD data to formulate products that adapts to growing children to reduce shelf-life, however, companies that do not invest accordlying in RD lose a significant share in the demographic segmentation (Saunders, 2007:55). The focus effort required to balancing the marketing strategy not just globally but locally provides a strong hold on the brand loyalist to further brand equity. Respectively, the measure to acquire toy and game brand influence both globally and locally markets requires the needed information to segments of the targeted demographics to when to effectively market during low periods of household spending. Therefore, the methods to achieving and managing the toy and game company brand identity to established a â€Å"familiarity† from the customer base that produces product superiority through brand value proposition. References 30 Key Note (2007) The Key Note Report 2007 21st Edition, Edited by James Manley, Retreived December 23, 2008, Published date May 2007 Emeraldinsight. com (2008) The Emerald Insight Review, Retrieved December 22, 2008, from http://www. emeraldinsight. com ASA. org (2008) The Advertising Standards Authority, Retrieved December 28, 2008, from www. asa. org. uk Carol. co. uk (2008) Annual Report Online, Retrieved December 26, 2008, from http://www. carol. co. uk Chitty, W. Barker, N. Shimp, T. A. (2005). Integrated Marketing Communications. Melbourne: Nelson. Pelsmacker, Patrick (2006) Marketing Communications: A European Perspective. Financial Times/ Prentice Hall; 3 edition Porter, Michael (2004) Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and Competitors. Free Press; New Ed edition Saunders, Mark (2007) Research Methods for Business Students. Financial Times/ Prentice Hall; 4 edition Schein, Edgar (2004) Organizational Culture and Leadership. Jossey Bass; 3rd Edition Baye, Michael R. , (2009) Managerial Economics and Business Strategy Fifth Edition, Retrieved from August 2, 2008, McGraw-Hill / Irwin, Boston, MA Bryman, Alan, (2007) Business Research Methods. Oxford University Press; 2Rev Ed edition Burnes, Bernard, (2004) Managing Change: A Strategic Approach to Organizational Dynamics. Financial Times/ Prentice Hall; 4 edition Cameron, Ester, (2004) Making Sense of Change Management: A Complete Guide to the Models, Tools and Techniques of Organizational Change. Kogan Page Ltd PlayStation. com (2008) The Official Website of Sony PlayStation, Retrieved from July 27, 2008, from http://www. playstation. com Nintendo. com (2008) The Official Website of Nintendo, Retrieved from July 25, 2008, from http://www. nintendo. com USA Today, (2005) Tech Gaming, Retrieved from July 29, 2008, from http://www. usatoday. com/tech/gaming/2005-11-21-xbox-rivals_x. htm Sony Boasts PlayStation, (2008) The PlayStation Boasts Sales, Retrieved, from July 30, 2008, from http://www. joystiq. com/2008/01/06/sony-boasts-playstation-holiday-sales-numbers/ Xbox, (2008) The Official Website of Xbox, Retrieved from July 26, 2008, from http://www. xbox. com Armstrong, Gary, Kotler, Philip, (2007). Marketing: An Introduction, 8th Edition. Pearson, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey Wild, John J. , Wild, Kenneth L. , Han, Jerry C. Y. , (2006). International Business, The Challenges of Globalization Williams, Meri (2008) The Principles of Project Management, SitePoint Incorporated Fleming, Quentin Koppelman, Joel (2006) Earned Value Project Management, 3rd Edition, Project Management Institute Bowen, R. Brayton, (2000). Recognizing Rewarding Employees. Journal of McGraw-Hill Professional Book Group. 2(3) 140-141 Kelly, Joe, (1998). Existential-Systems Approach to Managing Organizations. Journal of Greenwood Publishing Group, Incorporated. 1(3) 122-125 Shermerhorn, John, (2008). Organizational Behavior. Wiley, 10 Edition Cooper, Dale, Grey, Stephen, Raymond, G, and Walker, (2005) Managing Risk in Large Projects and Complex Procurements Mantel, Samuel J. Jr. Meredith, Jack R. Shafer, Scott M. Sutton, Margaret M. (2008) Project Management in Practice, John Wiley Sons, Inc. Publishing Kotter, John (1996) Leading Change. Harvard Business School Press Thill, John V. and Bovee, Courtland L. (2007) Excellence in Business Communication, Seventh Edition, Pearson Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey

Improving Performance of MANET under DSR Protocol

Improving Performance of MANET under DSR Protocol Improving Performance of MANET under DSR Protocol using Swarm Optimization to avoid redundancy CHAPTER 5 Implementation and Testing The implementation phase of any project development is the most important phase as it yields the final solution, which solves the problem at hand. The implementation phase involves actual materialization of the ideas, which are expressed in the analysis document and developed in design phase. Implementation of any software is always preceded by important decisions regarding selection of the platform, the language used, etc. These decisions are often influenced by several factors such as the real environment in which the system work, the speed that is required, the security concerns, other implementation specific details etc. Implementation should be perfect matching with the design document in order to achieve the necessary final product. For implementation of our system we use Network Simulator (NS) tool for simulation of the network and programming languages like Tool Command Language (TCL) and AWK are used for coding. 5.1 General Implementation Implementation and simulation under NS-2 consists of 3 steps: Simulation Design The first step in simulating a network is to design the simulation. In this step, the users should determine the simulation purposes, network configuration and assumptions, the performance measures, and the type of expected results Configuring and Running Simulation This step implements the design described in the first step. It consists of two phases: Network configuration phase: In this phase network components (e.g., node, mobile sink, base station TCP and UDP) are created and configured according to the simulation design. Also, the events such as data transfer are scheduled to start at a certain time. Simulation Phase: This phase starts the simulation which was configured in the Network Configuration Phase. It maintains the simulation clock and executes events chronologically. An algorithm is a procedure or formula for solving a problem. A computer program can be viewed as an elaborate algorithm. In mathematics and computer science, an algorithm usually means a small procedure that solves a recurrent problem. The algorithms used in the project to solve the problem. Evaluation of Fitness Function The fitness function F(x) is defined as follows: F(x) = PDR/k k*[NO + AD + PD] Where, NO = Normalized Overhead AD = Average End to End Delay PD = Number of Packet drop PDR = Packet Delivery Ratio k = Proportionality constant used for the optimization of fitness function. Value of k lies between 0 1 i.e. O 5.1.1 Proposed Algorithm 1) Genetic Algorithm Step 1. Simulate the network using the DSR protocol. Step 2. After the simulation, analyze the Trace file. This gives the number of different paths for the same source and destination pair. Step 3. Choose two paths PI P2 for the same source and destination pair with the equal number of nodes n. Step 4. Calculate the Routing Load (RL) MAC Load (ML),Packet Delivery Ratio ( PDR), End-to-End Delay (D), and number of packets dropped, for the selected path. Step 5. Apply fitness function on the path chosen in step 3. Step 6. Apply crossover on the path chosen in step 3 at random site. Step 7. Apply mutation after crossover on the path chosen in step 3 on the randomly chosen site. Step 8. Step 6 gives two new paths P1 P2 with one new node as compared to the old path. Let the new node in path PI be nl and in P2 be n2. Step 9. If n 1 belongs to network topology then apply the fitness function on the respective path otherwise discard the path. Step 10. Do the same for node n2 as in Step 9. Step 11. Consider the path with the highest fitness function value and:- { Respective path will be the optimal path for the given source and destination pair. The node replaced from the previous path is the misbehaving node. } 2) Ant Colony Optimization Step 1: Calculate the probability of selection of newly generated path that are obtain by applying genetic algorithm for the given source-destination pair. The path will be selected with the higher probability. P à °Ã‚ Ã…“‚ij= pheromone on the link. à °Ã‚ Ã…“‚ij visibility factor of the link. B k k is a constant used for optimization and lies between 0 and 1 à °Ã‚ Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃ‚ ¼, B are the constant aco optimization constant Step 2: The backward ant accumulates the pheromone and also the evaporation of pheromone take place, now we calculate the updated pheromone after the evaporation, à °Ã‚ Ã…“ ij= (i,j) accumulated pheromone on the link. FF Fitness Function k proposnality à °Ã‚ Ã…“ new=Ï *à °Ã‚ Ã…“ old+à °Ã‚ Ã…“  Step 3: The path with the higher path preference probability will be considered as the best path and the data transmission can be started along that path. Network Simulator2 (NS2) Network Simulator (Version 2), extensively recognized as NS2, is basically an event driven simulation tool that has established helpful in learning the dynamic environment of communication networks. Simulation of agitated as well as wireless network purposes and protocols for example, routing algorithms, TCP, and UDP can be completed using NS-2. In all-purpose, and then the NS-2 make available for the users by means of a way of identifying such network protocols and simulating their corresponding activities. NS-2 is written in C++, with an OTcl1 interpreter as a command and configuration interface. The C++ part, which is fast to run but slower to change, is used for detailed protocol implementation. The OTcl part, on the other hand, which runs much slower but can be changed very fast quickly, is used for simulation configuration. One of the advantages of this split language program approach is that it allows for fast generation of large scenarios. To simply use the simulator, it is sufficient to know OTcl. On the other hand, one disadvantage is that modifying and extending the simulator requires programming and debugging in both languages. NS-2 can simulate the following: Topology: Wired Wireless Transport Protocols: TCP, UDP Routing: Static and dynamic routing Application: FTP, HTTP, Telnet, Traffic generators 5.2.1 Basic Architecture of NS2 The basic architecture of NS2 is shown in the figure 5.1 below. NS2 provides users with executable command ns which take one input quarrel, the name of a Tcl simulation scripting file. Users are providing for the name of a Tcl simulation script as an input argument of anNS2 executable command that is ns. In the majority suitcases, a simulation trace file is shaped, and is second-hand to plot graph and/or to construct animation. NS-2 consists of two key languages: C++ and Object-oriented Tool Command Language (OTcl). While the C++ characterizes the internal apparatus of the simulation objects, the OTcl sets up simulation by pull together and configuring the substance as well as preparation discrete events. The C++ and the OTcl are linked collectively by means of TclCL. Mapped to a C++ object; variables in the OTcl sphere of influence are occasionally referred to as switches. Theoretically, a handle for example, n as a Node handle is just a string in the Otcl sphere of influence, and does not surround any functionality. Instead, the functionality for example, receiving a packet is distinct in the mapped C++ object examples are, of class Connector. In the OTcl province, a handle take steps as a frontend which interrelated with consumers and other Otcl objects. After simulation, NS-2 out puts moreover text-based or animation-based simulation consequences. Figure 5.1: Basic Architecture of NS2 To interpret these results graphically and interactively, tools such as NAM (Network Animator) and Xgraph are used. To investigate an exacting behavior of the network, clients can extract a relevant subset of text-based data and make over it to a more conceivable presentation Tcl and OTcl Programming Tcl (Tool Command Language) is used by millions of people in the world. It is a language with a very simple syntax and it allows a very easy integration with other languages. The characteristics of these languages are as follows: It allows a fast development It provide a graphic interface It is compatible with many platforms It is flexible for integration It is easy to use It is free Some of the basics of Tcl and Otcl programming are listed below. Assigning a value to a variable is done through the â€Å"set† command; for example: â€Å"set b 0†assigns the value 0 to b. When we want to use the value assigned to a variable, we should use a $ sign before the variable. For example, if we want to assign the value of the variable b, we should write â€Å"set x $a†. A mathematical operation is done using the expression command. For example, if we wish to assign the sum of values of variables a and b, we should write â€Å"set x [expr $a+$b]†. The sign # starts a commented line that is not part of the program, so the Tcl interpreter will not execute this line. Performance Analysis Module This module performs processing of output result set to compute the various performance metrics required to analyze the performance of flow slice based routing. This module includes following AWK scripts to compute various performance metrics. Plotting graphs for the performance metric to analyze the performance. The Fig 4.11 gives Flow chart for working of performance analysis module, Understanding the trace file format is essential for modeling performance metric computation. Manually interpretation of NS2 trace files for wireless simulation as follows ACTION:[s|r|D]: s sent, r received, D dropped WHEN:the time when the action happened WHERE:the node where the action happened LAYER:AGT application, RTR routing, LL link layer (ARP is done here), IFQ outgoing packet queue (between link and mac layer), MAC Mac, PHY physical SEQNO:the sequence number of the packet TYPE:The packet type cbr CBR data stream packet ftp – FTP data stream packet DSR DSR routing packet (control packet generated by routing) RTS RTS packet generated by MAC 802.11 ARP link layer ARP packet SIZE:the size of packet at current layer, when packet goes down, size increases, goes up size decreases [a b c d]:a The packet duration in Mac layer header b The mac address of destination c The mac address of source d The mac type of the packet body Figure 5.2: Flow chart for working of performance analysis module Initialization and Termination of NS2 An ns simulation starts with the command set ns [new Simulator] The first line in the tcl script. This declares a new variable NS using the set command. The code [new Simulator] is the instantiation of the class Simulator using the reserved word new.In order to have output files with data in the simulation (trace files) or files for visualization (nam files); we need to create the files using the â€Å"open† command as follows: #Open the Trace file set tracefile1 [open out.tr w] $ns trace-all $namfile #Open the NAM trace file Set namfile [open out.nam w] $ns namtrace-all $namfile The above procedures create a data trace file called â€Å"out.tr† and a nam visualization trace file called â€Å"out.nam†. The second lines open the file â€Å"out.tr† to be used for writing, declared with the letter â€Å"w†. The third line uses a simulator method called trace-all that have name of file as parameter where the traces will go. The termination of the program is done using a â€Å"finish† procedure. #Define a finish procedure proc finish {} { global ns tracefile1 namfile $ns flush–trace close $tracefile1 close $namfile execnamout.nam exit 0 } Plotting with X graph Xgraph is a plotting utility that is provided by ns. It allows to create postscript, Tgif files, and others, by clicking on the button â€Å"Hdcpy†. It can be invoked within the tcl command which results in an immediate display after the end of the simulation. The xgraph command expects one or more ASCII files as input containing each x-y data point pair perl line. Some of the options in xgraph are: Title: use –t â€Å"title†. Size: geometry xsize z ysize. Title for axis: -x â€Å"xtitle† (for the title of the x axis) and –y â€Å"ytitle† (for the title of the y axis) Color of text and grid: with the flag –v Command for the above options would be shown below Xgraph ov.xg in terms of load units for the† overhead†,Xgraph dl.xg in terms of microsec â€Å"delay†,Xgraph pdr.xg percentage of delivered data for† packet deliver ratio†. 5.3 Network Animator (NAM) When a simulation is finished, NS produces one or more text-based output files that contain detailed simulation data, if specified to do so in the input script. The data can be used for simulation analysis or as an input to a graphical simulation display tool called NAM. NAM has a nice graphical user interface. It can graphically present information such as throughput and number of packet drops at each link NAM is started with the command nam where is the name of a NAM trace file that was generated by NS, or it can execute it directly out of the TCL simulation script for the simulation to visualize. Figure 5.3: A Simple NAM Window 5.4 Test Setup The aim of testing stage is to discover defects/errors by testing individual program components. These components may be functions and the objects or modules. During system testing then these components are integrated to form the complete system. At this stage, of testing should focus on establishing that the system meets its functional requirements and does not behave in unexpected ways. Test data are inputs which have been devised to test the system whereas test cases are inputs to test the system and the outputs are predicted from these inputs if the system operates according to its specification the result of this is used to examine the behavior in a cohesive system. The test cases are selected to ensure that the system behavior can be examined in all possible combinations of conditions. Detecting all the different failure modes for software is generally infeasible. Software testing is used in association with verification and validation: Verification: Have built the software right (i.e., does it match the specification)? Validation: Have built the right software (i.e., is this what the customer wants)? Testing Process Testing is an integral part of software development. Testing process, in a way certifies, whether the product, that is developed, complies with the standards, that it was designed for Testing process involves building of test cases, against which, the product has to be tested. In some cases, test cases are done based on the system requirements specified for the product/software, which is to be developed. Testing Objectives These following objectives imply a dramatic change in view port the testing cannot show absence of defects, it can only show that software errors are present. Testing forms process of executing a program with the intent of finding an error. A good test case design is one that has a probability of finding an error yet undiscovered. A successful test will discovers all the bugs and user can undertake steps to rectify them. 5.4.1 Test Environment The software was tested on the following platform. Operating System – Ubuntu 11.10 Ns-allinone-2.35 DSR to find multiple paths using Genetic Algorithm 5.4.2 System testing Here the entire software system is tested and the reference document for this process is the requirements document the main goal is to see if the system meets its requirements. Each module and component of project was thoroughly tested to remove bugs through a system testing strategy. Test cases were generated for all possible input sequences and the output was verified for its correctness. Test cases for system testing are mentioned below. Software testing is the process used to help identify the correctness and completeness of developed system. Testing is a process of technical investigation that is intended to reveal if the system works in a way it is intended to operate. Testing furnishes a comparison that compares the state and behavior of the product against a specification. Software testing also provides an objective and the independent view of the software to allow the business to appreciate and understand the risks of software implementation. 5.4.3 Testing Artifacts Software testing development shown with many artifacts and they are: Test Plan: A test specification is normally known as test plan and the investigators are well conscious about what test plans determination is implemented and this information is made obtainable to administration and the developers. The manager or the foremost supervisory plan is to put together them more careful when increasing the code or construction additional revolutionizes. Traceability matrix: A traceability matrix is counters that draw a parallel necessity or propose for the documents to test documents and it is used to substantiate that the results are acceptable. Test case: The test case in general consists of a exclusive identifier and obligation references from a design specification then the preconditions along with the events a series of steps known as actions to follow the input output and expected result including the actual result. All these phases can be accumulated in a word central processing unit document, with the spreadsheet, and also the database, or other common repository. Test suite: The good number of frequent phrase for a collected works of test cases is a test suite. The test suite frequently also contains more comprehensive instructions or goals for each collected works of test cases. Test data: Numerous positions of standards or data are used to test the identical functionality of an exacting characteristic. It is also helpful to manufacture this data to the client and with the creation of or a project. Test harness: The software apparatus, illustration of information input and output, and arrangements are all referred to cooperatively as a test harness. Testing Methods The testing methods describe the approach that is used to test the working of the project. These approaches tests whether the functionality of the project address with the existing requirements. Overall functionality of the project is also tested. Types of test carried out are: Unit testing Integration testing Function testing Unit testing A unit test is a piece of code that invokes a unit of work and checks one specific end result of that unit of work. If the assumptions on the end result turn out to be wrong, the unit test has failed. In unit testing and black-box testing then the white-box testing are done to check the correctness of the existing functionality. Normal Manual testing has been done to check the correctness of the functionality of the project. Then the further results of each testing are depicted in the table the test case approach has been chosen out of the testing artifacts. Integration Testing Integration testing is any type of software testing that seeks to verify the interfaces between the components against a software design. Integration test may be performed all at once the top-down and bottom-up then significant piece first, some time integrating functional subsystems first and then integrating the subsystems in separate phases using any of the basic strategies. Usually larger the project, the more important the integration strategy will be to the project. Functional testing Functional testing is the generation of test cases from specifications is a valuable and flexible approach to software testing application from very early system specification right through module specification Functional testing deriving test cases from program specifications. Functional said to set of information used in test cases design not to what is tested also known as Specification based testing (from specifications) black-box testing (no view of the code)and the Functional and the specification description of intended program behavior either formal or informal.

Anorexia Nervosa: Symptoms, Treatment and Impact

Anorexia Nervosa: Symptoms, Treatment and Impact Circulatory system is made up of the vessels and the muscles that help and control the flow of the blood around the body. Blood contains antigens and antibodies to protect us from infectious and non-infectious diseases which called the immune system. Whenever antigen and antibody interlock, the antibody marks the antigen for destruction. Everyone would want to have the ideal body. They will do everything so that their bodies could be perfect form, especially female. Approximately 95% of those affected by anorexia are female, but males can develop the disorder as well. Anorexia nervosa is a non-infectious disease. Anorexia nervosa or usually called anorexia is an eating disorder or loss of desire for food (appetite). When people have this disease, they are called to be anorexic. The process of too much limiting the amount of food into the body is likely to result a person experiencing anorexia. People with anorexia nervosa behave to be very high achievers, performing very well in many activities. Professionals for instance athletes, model or superstar are easily got anorexic, because of their professional requirement. Anorexia is mostly resulted from one maintaining an extremely low weight, and formed as a result of changes in ones behavior, emotions, thinking, perceptions, and social interactions. When people called to be anorexic, they dont have any nutrition in their body and thus anorexias antigen could attack antibodies. When antibodies failed to prevent anorexias antigens, our body will get tired, weak and other symptoms of anorexia will occur. Even though there have been many anorexia cases, at the end of the millennium, people health will be better and anorexics will decrease because of the technology improvement. This essay will discuss the causes, symptoms, prevention methods, and treatment methods towards anorexia disease. Anorexia is a very dangerous disease because it is happening in all over the world. A record has been made in 2004 by world health organization statistical information system to prove how harmful is this eating disorder. There are approximately 20 countries counted for the people death caused by anorexics. Below is the diagram of the record. Anorexics might cause by having troubled relationships or being teased about their size or weight at their past. When being teased, person felt of not good enough, low self-esteem, and even anger. Thus this will affects their social life. According to a research suggests that a combination of certain personality traits, emotions and thinking patterns, as well as cultural and environmental factors might be responsible. People who have anorexia are behaving to deny that they have a problem. Due to people with anorexia often hide their condition symptoms are not easy to see. But as time goes by, as anorexia progresses symptoms may be seen and its start to be difficult for them to deny. The symptoms are: Anorexics read food labels to measures and weighs the calories of the food that they will eat. Anorexics will pretend that they had eaten before when someone ask them to or throw the food away. They preoccupy with food. By collecting recipes, reading food magazines or cooking for friends may make other think that they are normal and forgotten about their previous thought of (he/she) getting anorexia. Anorexics will cut food into small pieces and chewing every bite a certain number of times. The affected person uses various methods such as vomiting or laxative abuse to prevent weight gain. Most individuals with anorexia nervosa do not recognize that they have an eating disorder. And usually hide their feelings, thoughts, intentions and actions from other people (secretive). They may easily get tired, weak, and most of the time dizzy because of low blood pressure. Have purplish skin color on their arms and legs from poor blood flow. They also happen to have yellow skin and dry mouth. Patient of anorexia nervosa are easily getting confused and slow thinking. Not all of cases involving this type of non-infectious disease can be prevented. Despite that, there may be some ways to be done to prevent some cases to happen. What can be done are: teaching and encouraging healthy eating habits and realistic attitudes about food and body image to people that are suspected might experience anorexia. The role of parents in a family is also important. In particular, mothers should create a healthy lifestyle in order to show her children how important to consume particular amount of food, and fathers should not criticize too much on his children body shape and weight. In addition, parents should promote a healthy and supporting environment for their children. On the other hand, the media can also be used to promote healthier lifestyle. It must represent the society, as the basic characteristic of an individual is that they may tend to follow others lifestyle. The media can also display programs that are created to prevent eating disorder. Many of anorexics died before they could get a well treatment. Anorexics that are in a very underweight condition, must be treated carefully, or hospitalized. After anorexics get the medical treatment, they need to get psychological counseling in order for them learn about healthy foods and lifestyle. The psychological counseling may includes nutritional counseling, individual counseling and group counseling. Nutritional counseling will teaches anorexics to count calories of body needed in comfortable method. And to help with weight gain, doctors usually use liquid food supplements. Anorexics may also need some therapies such as cognitive-behavioral therapy or known as CBT in the individual counseling. CBT teachers will help anorexics to change their attitudes and behaviors about eating. Group counseling is also needed for anorexics, to share their experiences and to encourage their friends (who also experience anorexia) to recover. Family therapy is very helpful, especially for teen with anorexics. Parents and siblings could support the anorexics during treatment emotionally and physically. Another effort to help anorexics recover is by letting them expressing their feelings and doing something enjoyable for them for instance doing their hobbies. Then, doing relaxation is also important. By having yoga, massage and the traditional Chinese relaxation exercises will build a healthy relationship with their body. Bibliography ThinkQuest, ThinkQuest. Circulatory System. 30-11-09 . National Cancer Institute, USA, National Cancer Institute, USA . Antigens and Antibodies. 29-12-09 . Stoppler, Melissa. Anorexia nervosa. medecinenet.com. 29-11-09 . ehealthMD, ehealthMD. Anorexia nervosa. 30-11-09. NationMaster.com, NationMaster.com. Mortality Statistics > Eating disorders (most recent) by country . 1-12-09 . Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland Clinic. Anorexia nervosa. 1-11-09 . Depression and Anxiety in Older Adults: Knowledge Gaps Depression and Anxiety in Older Adults: Knowledge Gaps Depression and Anxiety in Older Adults:  Are there gaps in current knowledge regarding diagnosis and treatment? Introduction Mental health problems in older adults can cause a massive social impact, often bringing about poor quality of life, isolation and exclusion. Depression is one of the most debilitating mental health disorders worldwide, affecting approximately 7% of the elderly population (Global Health Data Exchange, 2010). Despite this, it is also one of the most underdiagnosed and undertreated conditions in the primary care setting. Even with estimates of approximately 25% of over 65’s living in the community having depressive symptoms severe enough to warrant medical intervention, only one third discuss their symptoms with their GP. Of those that do, only 50% receive treatment as symptoms of depression within this population often coincide with other later life problems ( IAPT, 2009; World Health Organisation (WHO), 2004). Chapter 2: Literature Review 2.1: Depression and Anxiety in older adults Many misconceptions surround ageing including the fact that depression is a normal part of the ageing process. Actual evidence indicates that other physical health issues often supersede the presentation of depressive symptoms in older adults which may suggest that the development of depression is influenced by deteriorating physical health (Baldwin, 2008; Baldwin et al, 2002). Depression may present differently in older adults in comparison to adolescents or even working age adults. Although the same disorder may be present throughout different stages of the lifespan, in older adults certain symptoms of depression may be accentuated, such as somatic or psychotic symptoms and memory complaints, or suppressed, such as the feelings of sadness, in comparison to younger people with the same disorder (Baldwin, 2008; Chiu, Tam Chiu, 2008). O’Connor et al (2001) carried out a study into ‘the influence of age on the response of major depression to electroconvulsive therapy†™ and found that when confounding variables are controlled (age at the beginning of a study), there is no difference in the remission rates for depression in both younger and older adults, however, relapse rates remain higher for older adults. Backing this up, Brodaty et al (1993) conducted a qualitative naturalistic study into the prognosis of depression in older adults in comparison to younger adults and again confirmed that the prognosis and remission for depression in older adults is not significantly worse than for younger adults. However, the rigor of a qualitative naturalistic study is argued by proponents as being value-laden in nature, while criticisms of this study approach highlight it as being subjective, anecdotal and subject to researcher bias (Koch, 2006). In addition to depression, anxiety disorders are also common among older adults, often presenting as a comorbid condition. In 2007, 2.28 million people were diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder in the UK, with 13% of those individuals aged 65 and over. By 2026, the projected number of people diagnosed with an anxiety disorder is expected to rise by 12.7% to 2.56 million with the greatest increase expected to be seen in the older adult population (King’s Fund, 2008). Despite the prevalence rate, anxiety is poorly researched in comparison to other psychiatric disorders in older people (Wetherell et al, 2005). Of the anxiety disorders, phobic disorders and generalised anxiety disorder (GAD) are the two most common in older people (Bryant et al, 2008). It wasn’t until 1980 that the American Psychiatric Association (APA) published the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) 3rd Edition which introduced Generalised Anxiety Disorder (GAD) into the psychi atric nomenclature, distinguishing it from other anxiety disorders for the first time (APA, 1980). MCManus et al (2009) estimate that in England alone, as many as 4.4% of people suffer with GAD with prevalence rates between 1.2 and 2.5 times higher for women than men (Prajapati, 2012). Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) continues to gain increased recognition and has received more clinical interest lately, correlating with individuals from the Second World War, Holocaust and Vietnam Veterans reaching or being well into old age. Despite this, data relating to prevalence rates still remains limited with research tending to focus on specific populations as opposed to community figures, for example, with regards to UK war veterans, approximately 30% will develop PTSD (pickingupthepieces.org.au, 2014). Unfortunately, stigma tends to misrepresent PTSD statistics as sufferers tend not to seek diagnosis or researcher bias is present. Britt (2000) found that many service personal within the military stated that admitting to a mental health problem was not only more stigmatising that admitting to a physical health problem but they also believed it would have a more detrimental impact on their career prospects. Furthermore, Mueller (2009) conducted a study into disclosure attitudes in which it was concluded that these attitudes can strongly predict symptom severity. With this in mind, it is important to stress the importance of practicing within the limits of NMC (2008) code of conduct in which unconditional positive regard must be shown by all nursing staff whilst incorporating a non-bias attitude in practice. Anxiety and depression comorbidity is well established. A longitudinal study, noted for its beneficial adaptability in enabling the researcher to look at changes over time, conducted by Balkom et al (2000) found that in a random community sample of adults (55 and older), who were diagnosed as having an anxiety disorder, 13% also met the criteria of major depressive disorder (MDD). Adding weight to the evidence of anxiety and depression comorbidity in older adults, Schaub (2000) who also conducted a longitudinal study, found that 29.4% of a sample of older adults in a German community diagnosed with an anxiety disorder also met the criteria for a depressive disorder. Longitudinal studies are thought to vary in their validity due to the attrition of randomly assigned participants during the course of the study, thus producing a final sample that is not a true representation of the population sampled (Rivet-Amico, 2009). King-Kallimanis, Gum and Kohn (2009) examined current and lifetime comorbidity of anxiety with depression. Within a 12 month period they found 51.8% of older adults with MDD in the United States also met the diagnostic criteria for an anxiety disorder. There is evidence to suggest that the first presentation of anxiety symptoms in older adults suggests an underlying depressive disorder (Chiu et al, 2008). Unfortunately, comorbid anxiety and depression in older adults is associated with much higher risks of suicidal symptoms (Bartels et al, 2002; Lenze et al, 2000) in addition to increased reports of more severe psychiatric and somatic symptoms and poorer social functioning when compared to depression alone (Lenze et al, 2000; Schoevers et al, 2003). 2.2 Diagnosis and Screening Tools The U.S. Preventive Services Task Force (USPSTF) (2009) states that screening for depression and anxiety in older adults allows GPs and mental health practitioners to look for these conditions despite the service user not reporting the symptoms. However, recommendations on the use of screening tools should be limited to services where there are adequate systems in place to refer service users on for in-depth assessment and treatment as screening without adequate treatment and follow-up is highly ineffective as highlighted by O’Conner (2009) and USPSTF (2009) in separate research reviews. Snowden et al (2009) further stipulates that screening should only be carried out in appropriate settings using approved depression screening tools designed specifically for older adults. Some of these specific screening tools include the Geriatric Depression Scale (GDS) and the 2 –item and 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-2 /PHQ-9). It is necessary to be mindful of the fact tha t screening tools are not diagnostic assessments, they merely identify the likelihood of someone have depression/anxiety (Snowden et al, 2009) and should be used in conjunction with a clinical examination to aid diagnosis (Chie et al, 2008). The self-administered Geriatric Depression Scale is the most widely accepted screening tool for depression in older adults, first developed by Yesavage et al in 1983. It is available in both a ‘long form’ and’ short form’. The ‘long form’ consists of a 30-item questionnaire, which asks the older adult to answer ‘yes’ or ‘no’ to specific questions in reference to how they have been feeling over the past week. The ‘shorter form’ (see appendix 1) was developed in 1986 following validation studies of the ‘long form’ and takes approximately 5 minutes to complete. This is often the more suitable screening tool as it can be more easily used by individuals who are physically unwell and those suffering from mild to moderate cognitive impairments such as dementia who may have relatively short concentration spans. It comprises of 15 specific questions from the ‘long form’ that generated the highest association with depressive symptoms. Scores of 0-4 on the GDS ‘short form’ are considered normal; 5-8 indicate mild depression; 9-11 indicate moderate depression; and 12-15 indicate severe depression (Yesavage et al, 1983; 1986). The GDS have proven to a highly reliable and valid screening tool. One study carried out by Paradela et al (2005) found that the GDS had 81% sensitivity and 71% specificity when evaluated against diagnostic criteria in the DSM-IV. In a validation study completed Sheikh and Yesavage (1986) comparing the GDS Long and Short Forms, both were successful in distinguishing depressed from non-depressed older adults with a high correlation. Within the NHS, several screening tools are more widely used than the GDS. These include the PHQ-9 (Spitzer et al, 1999), PHQ-2 (see appendix 2) (Kroenke et al, 2003) and ‘Whooley questions’ (see appendix 3) (Whooley et al, 1997). Both the PHQ-2 and PHQ-9 use a psychometric Likert scale format while the ‘Whooley questions’ uses simple yes/no answers. The PHQ-2 and ‘Whooley questions’ fall into the category of ‘ultra-short’ questionnaires comprising of as little as three, two or one single detection questions. Despite the use of these ultra-short questionnaires being used in practice, evidence from Mitchell and Coyne (2007) suggests that ‘one-question’ screening tools identify as little as one third of patients with depression making them unacceptable and unreliable screening tools if exclusively relied upon. Despite this, there is still support for the use of two and three question screening tools, specifically the PHQ-2 which has been found to identify as many as 80% of individuals with depression in primary care settings (Ross, 2010; Mitchell and Coyne, 2007). As with all good practice, caution should be used when utilising these screening tools are they can present false-positive results (Mitchell and Coyne, 2007). By comparison, the PHQ-9 is a self-administered 9-item questionnaire aimed at the detection of depression (Kroenke et al, 2001). It value within mental health screening is well known due to the robust evidence surrounding it validity and excellent levels of sensitivity (91.7%) and specificity (78.3%) (Kroenke et al, 2010). Chapter 3: Application to Nursing Practice Dementia, along with depression and other priority mental disorders are included in the WHO Mental Health Gap Action Programme (mhGAP). This programme aims to improve care for mental, neurological and substance use disorders through providing guidance and tools to develop health services in resource poor areas. Synthesis and utilization of empirical research is an important aspect of evidence-based care. Only within the context of the holistic assessment, can the highest quality of care be achieved. References: Baldwin, R., Chiu, E., Katona, C., and Graham, N. 2002. 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Yesavage, A., Brink, L., Rose, L., Lum, O., Huang, V., Adey, M., and Leirer, O. 1983. Development and validation of a geriatric depression screening scale: A preliminary report [Online]. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 17(1). pp 37-49. Available at: http://ac.els-cdn.com.abc.cardiff.ac.uk/0022395682900334/1-s2.0-0022395682900334-main.pdf?_tid=3e351376-2f84-11e4-80c4-00000aab0f02acdnat=1409320755_7707825345e33994a5a5539c953dac90 [Accessed 29th August 2014]. Appendix 1.